Disassembly Study of Ultrasonically Welded Thermoplastic Composite Joints via Resistance Heating
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Experimental Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Nanocomposite Films and Thermoplastic Composites Fabrication
2.3. Thermo-Electrical Characterization
2.4. Ultrasonic Welding Procedure
2.5. Disassembly of Welded Joints
2.6. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
3. Prediction of Heat-Affected Zone for Disassembly Experiments
4. Experimental Results and Discussion
4.1. Nanocomposite Films Characterization
4.1.1. Electrical Conductivity
4.1.2. Resistance Heating
4.2. Disassembly Study of Ultrasonically Welded Joints
4.2.1. Tensile Test Results
4.2.2. Fractographic and Heat-Affected Zone Analysis
4.3. Discussion on Disassembly Method and Its Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Cousins, D.S.; Suzuki, Y.; Murray, R.E.; Samaniuk, J.R.; Stebner, A. Recycling glass fiber thermoplastic composites from wind turbine blades. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 209, 1252–1263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Y.; Liu, Z.; Shen, J.; Lee, T.H.; Banu, M.; Hu, S.J. Weld quality prediction in ultrasonic welding of carbon fiber composite based on an ultrasonic wave transmission model. J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 2019, 141, 081010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yousefpour, A.; Hojjati, M.; Immarigeon, J.-P. Fusion Bonding/Welding of Thermoplastic Composites. J. Thermoplast. Compos. Mater. 2004, 17, 303–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arnt, O.; van Ingen, J.W.; Buitenhuis, A. Development of a butt jointed thermoplastics stiffened shin concept. In Proceedings of the SAMPE Conference, Long Beach, CA, USA, 23–26 May 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Agarwal, B.D.; Broutman, L.J.; Chandrashekhara, K. Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, 4th ed.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Murray, R.E.; Penumadu, D.; Cousins, D.; Beach, R.; Snowberg, D.; Berry, D.; Suzuki, Y.; Stebner, A. Manufacturing and Flexural Characterization of Infusion-Reacted Thermoplastic Wind Turbine Blade Subcomponents. Appl. Compos. Mater. 2019, 26, 945–961. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reis, J.P.; de Moura, M.; Samborski, S. Thermoplastic Composites and Their Promising Applications in Joining and Repair Composites Structures: A Review. Materials 2020, 13, 5832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Engelschall, M.; Larsen, L.; Fischer, F.; Kupke, M. Robot-based continuous ultrasonic welding for automated production of aerospace structures. In Proceedings of the SAMPE Europe Conference, Nantes, France, 17–19 September 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Jongbloed, B.; Teuwen, J.; Benedictus, R.; Villegas, I.F. On differences and similarities between static and continuous ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composites. Compos. Part B Eng. 2020, 203, 108466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bhudolia, S.K.; Gohel, G.; Leong, K.F.; Barsotti, R.J. Investigation on Ultrasonic Welding Attributes of Novel Carbon/Elium® Composites. Materials 2020, 13, 1117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Villegas, I.F.; Moser, L.; Yousefpour, A.; Mitschang, P.; Bersee, H.E. Process and performance evaluation of ultrasonic, induction and resistance welding of advanced thermoplastic composites. J. Thermoplast. Compos. Mater. 2013, 26, 1007–1024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Benatar, A.; Eswaran, R.V.; Nayar, S.K. Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics in the near-field. Polym. Eng. Sci. 1989, 29, 1689–1698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Z.; Xiaodong, W.; Yi, L.; Zhenqiang, Z.; Liding, W. Study on Heating Process of Ultrasonic Welding for Thermoplastics. J. Thermoplast. Compos. Mater. 2010, 23, 647–664. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bhudolia, S.K.; Gohel, G.; Kantipudi, J.; Leong, K.F.; Barsotti, R.J. Ultrasonic Welding of Novel Carbon/Elium® Thermoplastic Composites with Flat and Integrated Energy Directors: Lap Shear Characterisation and Fractographic Investigation. Materials 2020, 13, 1634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Tao, W.; Su, X.; Wang, H.; Zhang, Z.; Li, H.; Chen, J. Influence mechanism of welding time and energy director to the thermoplastic composite joints by ultrasonic welding. J. Manuf. Process. 2019, 37, 196–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Palardy, G.; Villegas, I.F. On the effect of flat energy directors thickness on heat generation during ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composites. Compos. Interfaces 2016, 24, 203–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Villegas, I.F.; Bersee, H.E.N. Ultrasonic welding of advanced thermoplastic composites: An investigation on energy-directing surfaces. Adv. Polym. Technol. 2010, 29, 112–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yan, J.; Wang, X.; Li, R.; Xu, H.; Yang, S. The Effects of Energy Director Shape on Temperature Field During Ultrasonic Welding of Thermoplastic Composites. Key Eng. Mater. 2007, 353–358, 2007–2010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bhudolia, S.K.; Gohel, G.; Leong, K.F.; Islam, A. Advances in Ultrasonic Welding of Thermoplastic Composites: A Review. Materials 2020, 13, 1284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Choudhury, M.R.; Debnath, K. Analysis of tensile failure load of single-lap green composite specimen welded by high-frequency ultrasonic vibration. Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 28, 739–744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bhudolia, S.K.; Gohel, G.; Kah, F.L.; Barsotti, R.J. Fatigue response of ultrasonically welded carbon/Elium® thermoplastic composites. Mater. Lett. 2020, 264, 127362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jongbloed, B.; Teuwen, J.; Palardy, G.; Villegas, I.F.; Benedictus, R. Continuous ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composites: Enhancing the weld uniformity by changing the energy director. J. Compos. Mater. 2020, 54, 2023–2035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goto, K.; Imai, K.; Arai, M.; Ishikawa, T. Shear and tensile joint strengths of carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastics using ultrasonic welding. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2019, 116, 126–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kalyan Kumar, R.; Omkumar, M. Investigation and characterization of ultrasonically welded GF/PA6T composites. Mater. Today Proc. 2019, 26, 282–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tutunjian, S.; Dannemann, M.; Fischer, F.; Eroglu, O.; Modler, N. A Control Method for the Ultrasonic Spot Welding of Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic Laminates through the Weld-Power Time Derivative. J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2018, 3, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Villegas, I.F.; Palardy, G. Ultrasonic welding of CF/PPS composites with integrated triangular energy directors: Melting, flow and weld strength development. Compos. Interfaces 2017, 24, 515–528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tutunjian, S.; Dannemann, M.; Modler, N.; Kucher, M. A Numerical Analysis of the Temporal and Spatial Temperature Development during the Ultrasonic Spot Welding of Fibre-Reinforced Thermoplastics. J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2020, 4, 30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Koutras, N.; Amirdine, J.; Boyard, N.; Villegas, I.F.; Benedictus, R. Characterisation of Crystallinity at the Interface of Ultrasonically Welded Carbon Fibre PPS Joints. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2019, 125, 105574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Y.; Yu, B.; Wang, B.; Lee, T.H.; Banu, M. Online quality inspection of ultrasonic composite welding by combining artificial intelligence technologies with welding process signatures. Mater. Des. 2020, 194, 108912. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lionetto, F.; Dell’Anna, R.; Montagna, F.; Maffezzoli, A. Modeling of continuous ultrasonic impregnation and consolidation of thermoplastic matrix composites. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2016, 82, 119–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Palardy, G.; Shi, H.; Levy, A.; Le Corre, S.; Villegas, I.F. A study on amplitude transmission in ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composites. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2018, 113, 339–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Levy, A.; Le Corre, S.; Poitou, A. Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composites: A numerical analysis at the mesoscopic scale relating processing parameters, flow of polymer and quality of adhesion. Int. J. Mater. Form. 2014, 7, 39–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Levy, A.; Le Corre, S.; Villegas, I.F. Modeling of the heating phenomena in ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composites with flat energy directors. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2014, 214, 1361–1371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suresh, K.S.; Rani, M.R.; Prakasan, K.; Rudramoorthy, R. Modeling of temperature distribution in ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics for various joint designs. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2007, 186, 138–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, X.; Yan, J.; Li, R.; Yang, S. FEM Investigation of the Temperature Field of Energy Director During Ultrasonic Welding of PEEK Composites. J. Thermoplast. Compos. Mater. 2006, 19, 593–607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, W.; Frederick, H.; Palardy, G. Multifunctional films for thermoplastic composite joints: Ultrasonic welding and damage detection under tension loading. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2021, 141, 106221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frederick, H.; Li, W.; Sands, W.; Tsai, E.; Palardy, G. Multifunctional films for fusion bonding and structural health monitoring of thermoplastic composite joints. In Proceedings of the SAMPE Conference, Charlotte, NC, USA, 6 July 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Brassard, D.; Dubé, M.; Tavares, J.R. Modelling resistance welding of thermoplastic composites with a nanocomposite heating element. J. Compos. Mater. 2020, 55, 625–639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brassard, D.; Dubé, M.; Tavares, J.R. Resistance welding of thermoplastic composites with a nanocomposite heating element. Compos. Part B Eng. 2019, 165, 779–784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Farahani, R.D.; Janier, M.; Dubé, M. Conductive films of silver nanoparticles as novel susceptors for induction welding of thermoplastic composites. Nanotechnology 2018, 29, 125701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Farahani, R.D.; Dubé, M. Novel Heating Elements for Induction Welding of Carbon Fiber/Polyphenylene Sulfide Thermoplastic Composites. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2017, 19, 1700294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vattathurvalappil, S.H.; Hassan, S.F.; Haq, M. Healing potential of reversible adhesives in bonded joints. Compos. Part B Eng. 2020, 200, 108360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vattathurvalappil, S.H.; Haq, M. Thermomechanical characterization of Nano-Fe3O4 reinforced thermoplastic adhesives and single lap-joints. Compos. Part B Eng. 2019, 175, 107162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ashrafi, B.; Laqua, K.; Martinez-Rubi, Y.; Jakubinek, M.B.; Park, D.; Simard, B. Electrically responsive polyurethane-CNT sheets for sensing and heating. In Proceedings of the CANCOM 2017, Ottawa, ON, Canada, 17–20 July 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Martinez-Rubi, Y.; Ashrafi, B.; Jakubinek, M.B.; Zou, S.; Laqua, K.; Barnes, M.; Simard, B. Fabrication of High Content Carbon Nanotube–Polyurethane Sheets with Tailorable Properties. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 30840–30849. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Senders, F.; van Beurden, M.; Palardy, G.; Villegas, I.F. Zero-flow: A novel approach to continuous ultrasonic welding of CF/PPS thermoplastic composite plates. Adv. Manuf. Polym. Compos. Sci. 2016, 2, 83–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Almasri, A.M. Predicting the thermal conductivity of polypropylene-multiwall carbon nanotubes using the Krenchel model. Sci. Eng. Compos. Mater. 2018, 25, 383–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, P.; Shi, L.; Majumdar, A.; McEuen, P.L. Thermal Transport Measurements of Individual Multiwalled Nanotubes. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2001, 87, 215502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Pan, Y.; Li, L.; Chan, S.H.; Zhao, J. Correlation between dispersion state and electrical conductivity of MWCNTs/PP composites prepared by melt blending. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2010, 41, 419–426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ramírez-Herrera, C.A.; Pérez-González, J.; Solorza-Feria, O.; Romero-Partida, N.; Flores-Vela, A.; Cabañas-Moreno, J.G. Highest recorded electrical conductivity and microstructure in polypropylene–carbon nanotubes composites and the effect of carbon nanofibers addition. Appl. Nanosci. 2018, 8, 1221–1232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gulrez, S.; Ali Mohsin, M.E.; Shaikh, H.; Anis, A.; Poulose, A.M.; Yadav, M.K.; Qua, E.H.P.; Al-Zahrani, S.M. A review on electrically conductive polypropylene and polyethylene. Polym. Compos. 2014, 35, 900–914. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nanni, F.; Mayoral, B.L.; Madau, F.; Montesperelli, G.; McNally, T. Effect of MWCNT alignment on mechanical and self-monitoring properties of extruded PET–MWCNT nanocomposites. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2012, 72, 1140–1146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jang, S.-H.; Park, Y.-L. Carbon nanotube-reinforced smart composites for sensing freezing temperature and deicing by self-heating. Nanomater. Nanotechnol. 2018, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Stavrov, D.; Bersee, H.E.N. Resistance welding of thermoplastic composites-an overview. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2005, 36, 39–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Etcheverry, M.; Barbosa, S.E. Glass Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene Mechanical Properties Enhancement by Adhesion Improvement. Materials 2012, 5, 1084–1113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rohart, V.; Lebel, L.L.; Dubé, M. Effects of environmental conditions on the lap shear strength of resistance-welded carbon fibre/thermoplastic composite joints. Compos. Part B Eng. 2020, 198, 108239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Koutras, N.; Benedictus, R.; Villegas, I.F. Thermal effects on the performance of ultrasonically welded CF/PPS joints and its correlation to the degree of crystallinity at the weldline. Compos. Part C Open Access 2021, 4, 100093. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
GF/PP | |||||
VGF (%) | kGF (W/m·K) | kPP (W/m·K) | ky (W/m·K) | kx, kz (W/m·K) | Cp (J/kg·K) |
60 a | 1.05 b | 0.15 a | 0.69 | 0.31 | 1.22 |
MWCNT/PP | |||||
MWCNT wt (%) | kCNT (W/m·K) | kPP (W/m·K) | kCNT/PP (W/m·K) | Cp (J/kg·K) | |
15/20/25 | 3000 c | 0.15 a | 0.55 to 0.65 c | 1.50 c |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Frederick, H.; Li, W.; Palardy, G. Disassembly Study of Ultrasonically Welded Thermoplastic Composite Joints via Resistance Heating. Materials 2021, 14, 2521. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14102521
Frederick H, Li W, Palardy G. Disassembly Study of Ultrasonically Welded Thermoplastic Composite Joints via Resistance Heating. Materials. 2021; 14(10):2521. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14102521
Chicago/Turabian StyleFrederick, Harry, Wencai Li, and Genevieve Palardy. 2021. "Disassembly Study of Ultrasonically Welded Thermoplastic Composite Joints via Resistance Heating" Materials 14, no. 10: 2521. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14102521