Production of TiC-MMCs Reinforcements in Cast Ferrous Alloys Using In Situ Methods
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Mixture and compaction of powders at room temperature or slightly higher;
- Start of combustion (ignition or auto-ignition);
- Self-propagating combustion, which leads to the formation of ceramics (carbides, borides, and silicides) or intermetallic compounds (e.g., TiAl).
2. Cast Ferrous Alloys Reinforced by SHS
3. Ti-C System
4. Ni-Ti-C and Ni-Ti-B4C Systems
5. Fe-Ti-C and Fe-Cr-Ti-C Systems
6. Cu-Ti-B4C/Cu-Ti-C Systems
7. Al-Ti-C and Al-Ti-B4C Systems
8. Conclusions
- The systems Ti-C, Ni-Ti-C, Ni-Ti-B4C, Fe-Ti-C/Fe-Cr-Ti-C, Cu-Ti-B4C, Al-Ti-C, and Al-Ti-B4C, have been the most used to produce metal matrix composites (MMCs) by casting route, with variable success. Most of the applications were developed in steel parts using the Fe-Ti-C/Fe-Cr-Ti-C powders systems and pressureless infiltration.
- In situ reinforcements are prepared following a common procedure that involves the mixture and compaction of metallic and non-metallic powders in a pre-form, which is inserted in the mold cavity before casting of the molten metal.
- In situ reinforcements are formed from self-propagating combustion reactions activated by the heat of the liquid metal that causes the synthesis of the ceramic phase.
- Variation of the process parameters such as compaction pressure, use of a binder, and initial powders ratio has been performed to improve the hardness and wear performance of the MMC produced.
- The development of TiC-MMCs using in situ methods allows the production of reinforcements up to five times harder than the base metal and three times more resistant to wear, thus achieving a high wear performance material.
- Despite the numerous studies that have been conducted till now, further research is needed to better understand the influence of the microstructural phases of TiC-MMCs on their mechanical properties and wear behavior.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Compound | Tad (°C) |
---|---|
TiC | 2940 |
WC | 730 |
SiC | 1530 |
B4C | 730 |
TiB2 | 2920 |
Materials and Methods | Results | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Base Metal | Reinforcing Materials | Method | Processing Conditions | |
Steel [51] | Ti (99.8%; 44 µm) Graphite (99.99%; 44 µm) Alcohol At.r. Ti:graphite—1:1 Wt.r. powders to alcohol— 1:2 | Casting with Ar atmosphere | Mixing—24 h Drying—300 °C/10 min Pouring temperature—1550 °C | Reinforcement thickness: 550 µm–1200 µm |
Hardness: 565–610 HV (matrix) 700–1134 HV (reinforcement) | ||||
Cast iron [53] | Ti (99.98%, 44 µm) Graphite (99.99%, 30 µm) At.r. Ti:graphite: 1:1 m.wt.—0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04 kg | Casting with Ar atmosphere (5 × 10−2 MPa) | Mixing—24 h Drying—412 °C/10 min | Reinforcement thickness: 1 mm (m.wt. 0.01 kg) 6 mm (m.wt. 0.02 kg) 10 mm (m.wt. 0.03 kg) 15 mm (m.wt. 0.04 kg) |
Low-carbon steel [50] | Ti (99.98%; 44 µm) Graphite (99.99%; 44 µm) At.r. Ti:graphite 1:1 | Infiltration casting | Mixing—24 h CP—500 MPa Pouring temperature—1600 °C | Hardness: 175 ± 4 HV 30 (base alloy) 696 ± 201 HV 30 (reinforcement) |
Low-carbon steel [52] | Ti (99.42%, 44 µm)— 80 wt.% Graphite (99.99%, 44 µm)— 20 wt.% | Infiltration casting | Mixing—24 h CP—250, 300, 500, 600 MPa Pouring temperature—1625 °C | Hardness: 326 ± 23 HV 30 (base alloy) 489 ± 116 HV 30 (CP 250 MPa) 1034 ± 88 HV 30 (CP 300 MPa) 1081 ± 234 HV 30 (CP 500 MPa) 1523 ± 290 HV 30 (CP 600 MPa) |
Low-carbon steel [56] | Ti (99.98%, 44 µm) Graphite (99.99%, 44 µm) At.r. Ti:graphite—1:1 | Infiltration casting | Mixing in a horizontal axle mixer—24 h CP—250, 600 MPa Pouring temperature—1600 °C | Wear mass loss: 0.32 g/16 h (CP 250 MPa) 0.13 g/16 h (CP 600 MPa) |
Hardness: 489 ± 116 HV (CP 250 MPa) 1523 ± 290 HV (CP 600 MPa) | ||||
Steel [57] | Ti (99.95%, 44 µm) Graphite (96%, 3 µm) At.% Ti:graphite—55:45 2, 5, 10% aqueous solutions of CMC Wt.r. powders to binder— 2:1 | Infiltration casting | Pouring temperature 1550 °C | Wear volume index: 315 mm3N−1m−1 (steel) 50 mm3N−1m−1 (2% CMC) 62 mm3N−1m−1 (5% CMC) |
Hardness: 400 HV 1 (steel) 800 HV 1 (2% CMC) 625 HV 1 (5% CMC) |
Materials and Methods | Results | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Base Metal | Reinforcing Materials | Method | Processing Conditions | |
Medium- carbon steel [61] | Ni (99.8%; ≈5 µm) 10, 20, 30, 40 wt.% Ti (99.5%; ≈15 µm) B4C (98.0%; 3.5 µm) Stoichiometric— 2TiB2-TiC | Infiltration casting | Mixing with Ar atmosphere in a stainless-steel jar—50 rpm/8 h CP—80–85 MPa (70 ± 5% theoretical density) Drying—300 °C/3 h Pouring temperature—1600 °C | Hardness: <20 HRC (matrix) 44 HRC (10 wt.% Ni) 43 HRC (20 wt.% Ni) 48 HRC (30 wt.% Ni) 47 HRC (40 wt.% Ni) |
High-carbon steel [59] | Ni (99.8%; ≈5 µm) 10–30 wt.% Ti (99.5%; ≈15 µm) C (99.9%; ≈38 µm) At.r. Ti:C—1:1 | Infiltration casting | Mixing in a ball milling—6 h CP—80–85 MPa (70–80% theoretical density) Pouring temperature—1600 °C | Wear volume loss: 2.311 × 10−10 m3m−1 (steel) 0.514 × 10−10 m3m−1 (10 wt.% Ni) |
Hardness: 34 HRC (steel) 57 HRC (10 wt.% Ni) | ||||
Austenite Mn-steel [60] | Ni (99.5%; 45 µm)— 40 wt.% (6 g) Ti (99.5%; ≈25 µm) 6.48, 6.65, 6.82 g B4C (98.0%; ≈25 µm) 2.52, 1.93, 1.33 g Graphite (99.5%; ≈38 µm) 0, 0.42, 0.85 g | Infiltration casting | Mixing in a ball milling—8 h Drying—300 °C/3 h Pouring temperature—1500 °C | Wear volume loss: 2.281 × 10−10 m3m−1 (steel) 0.5463 × 10−10 m3m−1 (specimen 1—6.48 g Ti; 2.52 g B4C) 0.7713 × 10−10 m3m−1 (specimen 2—6.65 g Ti; 1.93 g B4C; 0.42 C) 1.1406 × 10−10 m3m−1 (specimen 3—6.82 g Ti; 1.33 g B4C; 0.85 C) |
Hardness: 20 HRC (steel) 46 HRC (specimen 1) 43 HRC (specimen 2) 40 HRC (specimen 3) | ||||
Mn-steel [58] | Ni (99.5%; 45 µm)— 20 wt.% Ti (99.5%; 25 µm)— 64 wt.% Graphite (99.5%; ≈150, ≈38 and ≈1 µm)— 14 wt.% | Infiltration casting | Mixing—8 h Green densities of 75 ± 2% (theoretical density) | Wear volume loss: 2.268 × 10−10 m3m−1 (steel) 1.8771 × 10−10 m3m−1 (C: ≈150 µm) 1.4014 × 10−10 m3m−1 (C: ≈38 µm) 0.7152 × 10−10 m3m−1 (C: ≈1 µm) |
Hardness: <20 HRC (steel) 40 HRC (C: ≈38 µm) 45 HRC (C: ≈1 µm) |
Materials and Methods | Results | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Base Metal | Reinforcing Materials | Method | Processing Conditions | |
Ferritic- pearlitic ductile iron [54] | Ti (99.98%; 44 µm) Graphite (99.99%; 44 µm) At.r. Ti:graphite—1:1 Fe (99.4%; 44 µm) 0 (M100), 10 (M90), 50 (M50) wt.% | Infiltration casting | Drying—100 °C/1 h CP—500 MPa Pouring temperature— 1450 °C | Hardness: 742 ± 163 HV (M100) 562 ± 29 HV (M90) 256 ± 38 HV (M50) |
High Mn-steel [22] | Ti (30–50 µm) C (30–50 µm) 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 wt.% At.r. Ti:C—4:1 Ti + C: 90, 80, 70, 60, 50 wt.% Fe (40–60 µm) 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 wt.% PVA glue (2%)—3 wt.% | Infiltration casting (lost model) | CP—200 MPa | Wear rate: 40% relative wear rate (Ti + C—80 wt.%) |
Hardness: 48 HRC (Ti + C—80 wt.%) | ||||
Mn-steel [48] | Ti (30–50 µm) C (30–50 µm) At.r. Ti:C—4:1 Ti + C: 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 wt.% Fe (40–60 µm) 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 wt.% TiC (1–10 µm) PVA glue (2%)—3 wt.% Sodium silicate Water | Infiltration casting (lost model) | Mixing in a planetary tank—1 h Density of the compacts 1.80, 2.51, 2.79, 3.05, 3.39, 3.58 g∙cm−3 Pouring temperature— 1560 °C | Relative wear rate: 22% (density—3.05 g∙cm−3— CP 200 MPa; 80 wt.% Ti + C) |
Hardness: ≈13 HRC (base metal) 63 HRC (density—3.05 g∙cm−3—CP 200 MPa; 80 wt.% Ti + C) | ||||
Gray cast iron [24] | Fe (99.9%; <75 µm)—45 wt.% Ti (99.5%; <75 µm)—51.76 wt.% C (99.5%; <30 µm)—3.24 wt.% PVAL solution (glue) Wt.r. powders:glue—3:1 | Pressure-driven infiltration (lost model) | Mixing in a ball mill with a wt.r. ball:powder—10:1— 6 h Drying—50 °C/24 h Vacuum degree—0.06 MPa Pouring temperature— 1450 °C; 1500 °C; 550 °C; 1600 °C | Hardness: 51 HRC (1450 °C) 68 HRC (1500 °C) 61 HRC (1550 °C) 55 HRC (1600 °C) |
Low-carbon steel [20] | Ti (99.8 wt.%, 44 µm) Graphite (99.9 wt.%, 44 µm) At.r. Ti:graphite—1:1 Fe (99.8 wt.%, 44 µm) 0, 10, 30, 50, 70 wt.% | Infiltration casting | Mixing in a shaker mixer— 6 h CP—500 MPa Compacts fixed in the mold cavity using a ceramic glue Pouring temperature— 1497 °C | Hardness: 500 HV 30 (with no Fe powder) 350 HV 30 (10 wt.% Fe) 400 HV 30 (30 wt.% Fe) 380 HV 30 (50 wt.% Fe) 250 HV 30 (70 wt.% Fe) |
Materials and Methods | Results | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Base Metal | Reinforcing Materials | Method | Processing Conditions | |
Medium- carbon steel [71] | Low-melting-point compounds Cr—25–28 wt.% Ni—15–30 wt.% C—4–5 wt.% Fe—balance Carbide-forming compounds Ti—27.9 wt.% Si—1.03 wt.% Al—2.12 wt.% Graphite—6.5 wt.% Fe—balance Ratio low-melting-point compounds to the carbide-forming compounds—1:1 | Infiltration casting | Mixing in a ball mill—24 h CP—500 MPa Drying—500 °C/2 h Pouring temperature— 1600 °C | … |
Medium Mn-steel [9] | High ferrotitanium (25–53 µm) Low ferrotitanium (25–53 µm) At.r. Ti:C—1:1 Graphite (99.9 wt.%, 53 µm) | Infiltration casting | Mixing in a stainless-steel jar—50 rpm/24 h CP—80 MPa Drying—120 °C/5 h | Weight loss: 0.0304 g (quenched Mn13 steel) 0.0162 g (reinforced zone) |
Hardness: 18 HRC (quenched Mn13 steel) 55 HRC (reinforced zone) | ||||
Medium- carbon steel [72] | Ti (50–60 µm) C (150–160 µm) Steel powder (35–40 µm) 0 and 20 wt.% | Pressure- driven infiltration (lost model) | Density of 50% Painted 1 mm thickness Drying—50 °C Vacuum degree— 0.065–0.060 MPa | … |
Medium- carbon steel [10] | Ti (99.98%; 45 µm) Graphite (98%; 10 µm) At.r. Ti:graphite—1:1 Ti + graphite: 30 wt.% White cast iron powder (3,6 C; 2,2 Si; 0,8 Mn; 5,5 Ni; 10 Cr; 0,5 Mo; Fe bal.)—70 wt.% | Infiltration casting | Mixing—6 h Pouring temperature—1550 °C | Wear rate: 2.8 × 10−6 mm3N−1m−1 (reinforcement) |
Hardness: 500 HV 1 (base alloy) 1500 HV 1 (reinforcement) | ||||
Medium- carbon steel [62] | Ti (>99.95%, 45 µm) Graphite (>96%, 5 µm) At.r. Ti:graphite—1:1 Hadfield steel powder (moderator)—70 and 90 wt.% | Infiltration casting | Mixing—6 h CP—550 MPa Pouring temperature—1625 °C | Wear rate: 803.90 × 10−6 mm3N−1m−1 (base metal) 15.30 × 10−6 mm3N−1m−1 (70 wt.% moderator) 48.81 × 10−6 mm3N−1m−1 (90 wt.% moderator) |
Hardness: Increase in hardness ranging from 200 to 300 HV) 785 HV 30 (70 wt.% moderator) 580 HV 30 (90 wt.% moderator) | ||||
Medium- carbon steel [7] | Ti (99.95%, 44 µm) Graphite (>96%, 3 µm) At.r. Ti:graphite—1:1 High-chromium cast iron powder (moderator) 30, 50, 70 and 90 wt.% | Infiltration casting | Drying—150 °C CP—500 MPa Pouring temperature—1550 °C | Reinforcement thickness: 26 mm (30 wt.% moderator) 24 mm (50 wt.% moderator) 21 mm (70 wt.% moderator) 20 mm (90 wt.% moderator) |
Wear rate: 321.13 mm3N−1m−1 (steel) 22.99 mm3N−1m−1 (30 wt.% moderator) 4.26 mm3N−1m−1 (50 wt.% moderator) 4.39 mm3N−1m−1 (70 wt.% moderator) 2.7 mm3N−1m−1 (90 wt.% moderator) | ||||
Hardness: ≈460 HV 1 (steel) ≈725 HV 1 (30 wt.% moderator) ≈775 HV 1 (50 wt.% moderator) 927 HV 1 (70 wt.% moderator) ≈825 HV 1 (90 wt.% moderator) |
Materials and Methods | Results | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Base Metal | Reinforcing Materials | Method | Processing Conditions | |
Medium- carbon steel [26] | Cu (99.0%; ≈45 µm) 10–60 wt.% Ti (99.5%; ≈38 µm) B4C (99.9%; ≈3.5 µm) Stoichiometric 2TiB2-TiC | Infiltration casting | Mixing by ball-milling— 35 rpm/8 h Drying—300 °C/3 h Pouring temperature—1500 °C | Wear volume loss: 3.42 × 10−10 m3∙m−1 (steel) 1.17 × 10−10 m3∙m−1 (10 wt.% Cu) 1.09 × 10−10 m3∙m−1 (20 wt.% Cu) 0.92 × 10−10 m3∙m−1 (30 wt.% Cu) 1.35 × 10−10 m3∙m−1 (40 wt.% Cu) 1.97 × 10−10 m3∙m−1 (50 wt.% Cu) 2.35 × 10−10 m3∙m−1 (60 wt.% Cu) |
Hardness: <20 HRC (steel) 50 HRC (10 wt.% Cu) 48 HRC (20 wt.% Cu) 49 HRC (30 wt.% Cu) 46 HRC (40 wt.% Cu) 41 HRC (50 wt.% Cu) 38 HRC (60 wt.% Cu) | ||||
Medium Mn-steel [73] | Cu (99.5%, ≈6 µm)—20 wt.% Ti (99.5%, ≈15 µm) C (99.9%, ≈1, 38, 75, 150 µm) At.r. Ti:C—1:1 | Infiltration casting | Mixing—6 h Green densities of 70 ± 2% (theoretical density) Drying—150 °C/3 h Pouring temperature—1500 °C | Wear volume loss: 2.28 × 10−10 m3∙m−1 (steel) 2.07 × 10−10 m3∙m−1 (≈150 µm C) 1.52 × 10−10 m3∙m−1 (≈38 µm C) 0.75 × 10−10 m3∙m−1 (≈1 µm C) |
Hardness: <20 HRC (steel) 34 HRC (≈150 µm C) 42 HRC (≈38 µm C) 46 HRC (≈1 µm C) | ||||
Mn-steel [6] | Cu (99.5%; ≈3 µm) 10, 30, 50 wt.% Ti (99.5%; ≈38 µm) B4C (99.9%; ≈3.5 µm) Mole ratio Ti:B4C—3:1 | Infiltration casting | Mixing in a stainless-steel container—≈35 rpm/8 h CP—60 MPa Drying—300 °C/3 h Pouring temperature—1500 °C | Hardness: 18 HRC (steel) 50 HRC (10 wt.% Cu) 58 HRC (30 wt.% Cu) 41 HRC (50 wt.% Cu) |
Mn-steel [63] | Cu (99.5%, ≈3 µm)—40 wt.% Ti (99.5%, ≈38 µm) B4C (99.9%; ≈3.5, ≈45, 150 µm) Mole ratio Ti:B4C—3:1 | Infiltration casting | Mixing—35 rpm/8 h (65% theoretical density) Drying—300 °C/3 h Pouring temperature—1600 °C | Wear mass loss (80 N): ≈17.8 mg (Mn-steel) ≈4.3 mg (≈3.5 µm B4C) ≈5.2 mg (≈45 µm B4C) ≈8 mg (≈150 µm B4C) |
Hardness: <20 HRC (Mn-steel) 46 HRC (≈3.5 µm B4C) 42 HRC (≈45 µm B4C) 34 HRC (≈150 µm B4C) | ||||
Mn-steel [74] | Cu (99.5%, ≈6 µm) 10–50wt.% Ti (99.5%, ≈25 µm) C (99.9, ≈38 µm) At.r. Ti:C—1:1 | Infiltration casting | Mixing in a stainless-steel container—6 h Green densities of 65 ± 2% (theoretical density) Drying—300 °C/3 h Pouring temperature—1500 °C | Wear mass loss (110 N): ≈8.5 mg (steel) ≈5.5 mg (10 wt.% Cu) ≈4.8 mg (20 wt.% Cu) ≈4.9 mg (30 wt.% Cu) ≈5.25 mg (40 wt.% Cu) ≈6.75 mg (50 wt.% Cu) |
Hardness: <20 HRC (steel) 47 HRC (10 wt.% Cu) 36 HRC (20 wt.% Cu) 31 HRC (30 wt.% Cu) 29 HRC (40 wt.% Cu) 27 HRC (50 wt.% Cu) |
Materials and Methods | Results | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Base Metal | Reinforcing Materials | Method | Processing Conditions | |
High-Cr alloy steel [65] | Ti (99.5%; <25 µm) B4C (98.0%; <3.5 µm) At.r. B:Ti—2:1 At.r. C:Ti—1:1 Al (98.4%; <27 µm) 10, 20, 30, 40 wt.% | Infiltration casting | CP—70–75 MPa (65 ± 2% of theoretical values) Pouring temperature—1600 °C | Wear volume loss: 2.071 × 10−10 m3m−1 (steel) 1.595 × 10−10 m3m−1 (30 wt.% Al) |
Hardness: 50 HRC (steel) 57 HRC (30 wt.% Al) | ||||
Medium- carbon steel [44] | Al (99%; ≈29 µm)—30 wt.% Ti (99.5%; ≈38–48 µm) B4C (97%; 2.5–3.5; 20–28; 28–40; 63–80, 100–125 µm) Mole ratio Ti:B4C—3:1 | Infiltration casting | Mixing in a stainless-steel container—≈35 rpm/8 h CP—≈60 MPa (green densities of 65 ± 2%) | … |
High-Cr white cast iron [64] | Al (99.0%, 12 µm)—20 wt.% Ti (99.5%, 43 µm)—64 wt.% Graphite (99.0%, 43 µm)— 16 wt.% | Infiltration casting | Mixing in a shaker mixer—7 h CP—70 MPa Pouring temperature—1460 °C | Reinforcement thickness: 6 mm |
High-Cr white cast iron [75] | Al (99.0%, 12 µm)—20 wt.% Ti (99.5%, 43 µm)—64 wt.% Graphite (99.0%, 43 µm)— 16 wt.% | Infiltration casting | Mixing in a shaker mixer—7 h CP—70 MPa Pouring temperature—1460 °C | Reinforcement thickness: 6 mm |
Wear rate: 1.29 × 10−6 mm3∙N−1∙mm−1 (base metal) 9.01 × 10−7 mm3∙N−1∙mm−1 (reinforcement) | ||||
Hardness: 579 ± 47 HV 30 (base metal) 797 ± 112 H V30 (reinforcement) |
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Moreira, A.B.; Ribeiro, L.M.M.; Vieira, M.F. Production of TiC-MMCs Reinforcements in Cast Ferrous Alloys Using In Situ Methods. Materials 2021, 14, 5072. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14175072
Moreira AB, Ribeiro LMM, Vieira MF. Production of TiC-MMCs Reinforcements in Cast Ferrous Alloys Using In Situ Methods. Materials. 2021; 14(17):5072. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14175072
Chicago/Turabian StyleMoreira, Aida B., Laura M. M. Ribeiro, and Manuel F. Vieira. 2021. "Production of TiC-MMCs Reinforcements in Cast Ferrous Alloys Using In Situ Methods" Materials 14, no. 17: 5072. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14175072