Artificial Intelligence Aided Design of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds Employing Virtual Tomography and 3D Convolutional Neural Networks
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Creating a Library of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds with Well-Known Properties
2.2. From 3D CAD Files to Digital Tomographies as Input for 3D CNNs
2.3. Structuring and Training 3D CNNs for Predicting Mechanical Properties
Strategy | Number of Lattices Used | Number of Lattices Used for Training | Number of Lattices Used for Validation | Data Augmentation Strategy |
---|---|---|---|---|
1st strategy | 20 | 14 random ones | 6 random ones | - |
2nd strategy | 120 | 114 random ones | 6 random ones | Rotations around z-axis (15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°) |
3rd strategy | 240 | 234 random ones | 6 random ones | Previous rotations plus zoomed-in lattices |
4th strategy | 360 | 354 random ones | 6 random ones | Previous rotations and zooms (240 lattices) plus vertical flips without zoom (120 lattices more) |
5th strategy | 480 | 474 random ones | 6 random ones | Addition of horizontal flips (120 lattices more) |
6th strategy | 680 | 674 random ones | 6 random ones | Addition of rotated initial lattices around x- and y-axes (15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, 200 lattices more) |
2.4. Testing and Validation of the Global Strategy
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. CAD Models, Digital Tomographies, and Training and Validation of 3D CNNs
3.2. Performance of the Structured and Trained 3D CNNs: Predictions vs. Real Performance
4. Challenges and Future Proposals
4.1. Potentials, Limitations, and Challenges of the Study
4.2. Future Research Proposals
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Lattice nº | Simulated Relative Porosity (%) | Predicted Relative Porosity (%) | Relative Porosity AE | Relative Porosity MAE | Simulated Rel. Elastic Modulus E_Relative (%) | Predicted Rel. Elastic Modulus E_Relative (%) | Rel. Elastic Modulus E_Relative AE | Rel. Elastic Modulus E_Relative MAE | Simulated Rel. Shear Modulus G_Relative (%) | Predicted Rel. Shear Modulus G_relative (%) | Rel. Shear Modulus G_Relative AE | Rel. Shear Modulus G_Relative MAE |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st strategy | ||||||||||||
Lattice 1 | 35.138 | −0.569 | 35.706 | 39.073 | 42.645 | 63.123 | 20.478 | 26.814 | 13.755 | 27.629 | 13.874 | 13.193 |
Lattice 2 | 47.527 | −0.750 | 48.277 | 21.503 | 29.878 | 8.374 | 8.988 | 12.163 | 3.175 | |||
Lattice 3 | 28.650 | −0.559 | 29.209 | 52.309 | 82.533 | 30.224 | 18.775 | 25.614 | 6.839 | |||
Lattice 4 | 38.641 | −0.780 | 39.421 | 35.758 | 56.540 | 20.782 | 14.793 | 30.589 | 15.796 | |||
Lattice 5 | 64.862 | 25.843 | 39.019 | 18.462 | −0.074 | 18.536 | 3.126 | 1.489 | 1.637 | |||
Lattice 6 | 52.473 | −0.764 | 53.237 | 25.252 | 77.633 | 52.381 | 4.658 | 33.474 | 28.816 | |||
Lattice 7 | 71.350 | 76.944 | 5.594 | 14.336 | −0.072 | 14.408 | 2.118 | 0.077 | 2.041 | |||
Lattice 8 | 61.359 | −0.763 | 62.123 | 17.785 | 67.116 | 49.331 | 1.143 | 34.510 | 33.367 | |||
2nd strategy | ||||||||||||
Lattice 1 | 35.138 | 12.707 | 22.431 | 18.476 | 42.645 | 62.542 | 19.897 | 18.926 | 13.755 | 24.392 | 10.638 | 9.263 |
Lattice 2 | 47.527 | 57.088 | 9.561 | 21.503 | 4.106 | 17.397 | 8.988 | 4.646 | 4.342 | |||
Lattice 3 | 28.650 | 29.877 | 1.226 | 52.309 | 77.738 | 25.429 | 18.775 | 29.877 | 11.102 | |||
Lattice 4 | 38.641 | 38.019 | 0.622 | 35.758 | 24.999 | 10.759 | 14.793 | 13.045 | 1.749 | |||
Lattice 5 | 64.862 | 49.150 | 15.713 | 18.462 | 19.016 | 0.554 | 3.126 | 7.370 | 4.243 | |||
Lattice 6 | 52.473 | 7.153 | 45.320 | 25.252 | 71.796 | 46.544 | 4.658 | 27.718 | 23.060 | |||
Lattice 7 | 71.350 | 53.194 | 18.155 | 14.336 | 17.750 | 3.414 | 2.118 | 6.110 | 3.992 | |||
Lattice 8 | 61.359 | 26.582 | 34.777 | 17.785 | 45.202 | 27.417 | 1.143 | 16.120 | 14.977 |
Lattice nº | Simulated Relative Porosity (%) | Predicted Relative Porosity (%) | Relative Porosity AE | Relative Porosity MAE | Simulated Rel. Elastic Modulus E_Relative (%) | Predicted Rel. Elastic Modulus E_Relative (%) | Rel. Elastic Modulus E_Relative AE | Rel. Elastic Modulus E_Relative MAE | Simulated Rel. Shear Modulus G_Relative (%) | Predicted Rel. Shear Modulus G_Relative (%) | Rel. Shear Modulus G_Relative AE | Rel. Shear Modulus G_Relative MAE |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3rd strategy | ||||||||||||
Lattice 1 | 35.138 | 41.831 | 6.694 | 17.646 | 42.645 | 18.270 | 24.375 | 20.207 | 13.755 | 12.084 | 1.670 | 5.634 |
Lattice 2 | 47.527 | 91.267 | 43.740 | 21.503 | −0.201 | 21.704 | 8.988 | −0.187 | 9.175 | |||
Lattice 3 | 28.650 | 32.668 | 4.018 | 52.309 | 26.848 | 25.461 | 18.775 | 14.455 | 4.320 | |||
Lattice 4 | 38.641 | 89.796 | 51.155 | 35.758 | −0.239 | 35.997 | 14.793 | −0.160 | 14.954 | |||
Lattice 5 | 64.862 | 60.900 | 3.963 | 18.462 | −0.137 | 18.599 | 3.126 | −0.101 | 3.227 | |||
Lattice 6 | 52.473 | 32.554 | 19.919 | 25.252 | 22.132 | 3.120 | 4.658 | 12.956 | 8.298 | |||
Lattice 7 | 71.350 | 66.871 | 4.479 | 14.336 | −0.185 | 14.521 | 2.118 | −0.143 | 2.261 | |||
Lattice 8 | 61.359 | 68.560 | 7.201 | 17.785 | −0.098 | 17.883 | 1.143 | −0.025 | 1.167 | |||
4th strategy | ||||||||||||
Lattice 1 | 35.138 | 27.745 | 7.393 | 14.577 | 42.645 | 45.714 | 3.069 | 12.108 | 13.755 | 18.809 | 5.054 | 6.823 |
Lattice 2 | 47.527 | 86.467 | 38.940 | 21.503 | 0.292 | 21.211 | 8.988 | −0.003 | 8.991 | |||
Lattice 3 | 28.650 | 17.930 | 10.720 | 52.309 | 60.546 | 8.237 | 18.775 | 24.280 | 5.505 | |||
Lattice 4 | 38.641 | 65.936 | 27.296 | 35.758 | 16.456 | 19.303 | 14.793 | 6.952 | 7.841 | |||
Lattice 5 | 64.862 | 61.508 | 3.354 | 18.462 | 22.591 | 4.130 | 3.126 | 7.012 | 3.886 | |||
Lattice 6 | 52.473 | 26.997 | 25.476 | 25.252 | 55.402 | 30.150 | 4.658 | 20.239 | 15.581 | |||
Lattice 7 | 71.350 | 68.602 | 2.748 | 14.336 | 21.723 | 7.387 | 2.118 | 4.622 | 2.503 | |||
Lattice 8 | 61.359 | 62.052 | 0.693 | 17.785 | 21.164 | 3.378 | 1.143 | 6.365 | 5.222 |
Lattice nº | Simulated Relative Porosity (%) | Predicted Relative Porosity (%) | Relative Porosity AE | Relative Porosity MAE | Simulated Rel. Elastic Modulus E_Relative (%) | Predicted Rel. Elastic Modulus E_Relative (%) | Rel. Elastic Modulus E_Relative AE | Rel. Elastic Modulus E_Relative MAE | Simulated Rel. Shear Modulus G_Relative (%) | Predicted Rel. Shear Modulus G_Relative (%) | Rel. Shear Modulus G_Relative AE | Rel. Shear Modulus G_Relative MAE |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
5th strategy | ||||||||||||
Lattice 1 | 35.138 | 35.598 | 0.460 | 15.496 | 42.645 | 42.575 | 0.070 | 18.713 | 13.755 | 13.167 | 0.588 | 9.289 |
Lattice 2 | 47.527 | 47.341 | 0.187 | 21.503 | 29.543 | 8.040 | 8.988 | 17.428 | 8.440 | |||
Lattice 3 | 28.650 | 33.927 | 5.276 | 52.309 | 43.521 | 8.789 | 18.775 | 14.347 | 4.428 | |||
Lattice 4 | 38.641 | 31.366 | 7.275 | 35.758 | 43.336 | 7.578 | 14.793 | 22.453 | 7.660 | |||
Lattice 5 | 64.862 | 44.621 | 20.242 | 18.462 | 35.414 | 16.952 | 3.126 | 7.862 | 4.736 | |||
Lattice 6 | 52.473 | 21.655 | 30.818 | 25.252 | 67.866 | 42.614 | 4.658 | 25.450 | 20.793 | |||
Lattice 7 | 71.350 | 47.203 | 24.147 | 14.336 | 36.286 | 21.950 | 2.118 | 7.237 | 5.118 | |||
Lattice 8 | 61.359 | 25.800 | 35.559 | 17.785 | 61.499 | 43.714 | 1.143 | 23.696 | 22.553 | |||
6th strategy | ||||||||||||
Lattice 1 | 35.138 | 24.881 | 10.257 | 7.665 | 42.645 | 33.416 | 9.229 | 10.264 | 13.755 | 18.620 | 4.865 | 3.242 |
Lattice 2 | 47.527 | 57.971 | 10.444 | 21.503 | 18.641 | 2.862 | 8.988 | 7.243 | 1.745 | |||
Lattice 3 | 28.650 | 24.990 | 3.660 | 52.309 | 33.358 | 18.951 | 18.775 | 18.512 | 0.263 | |||
Lattice 4 | 38.641 | 36.310 | 2.331 | 35.758 | 26.531 | 9.227 | 14.793 | 14.152 | 0.641 | |||
Lattice 5 | 64.862 | 62.012 | 2.850 | 18.462 | 5.179 | 13.283 | 3.126 | 3.943 | 0.817 | |||
Lattice 6 | 52.473 | 34.515 | 17.957 | 25.252 | 25.039 | 0.213 | 4.658 | 13.551 | 8.893 | |||
Lattice 7 | 71.350 | 79.106 | 7.756 | 14.336 | 3.789 | 10.547 | 2.118 | 0.402 | 1.717 | |||
Lattice 8 | 61.359 | 67.421 | 6.062 | 17.785 | −0.013 | 17.799 | 1.143 | 8.139 | 6.997 |
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Lattice nº | Relative Porosity (%) | Relative Compression Modulus E_Relative (%) | Relative Shear Modulus G_Relative (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Lattice 1 | 35.2000 | 39.5401 | 13.0767 |
Lattice 2 | 64.8000 | 18.5385 | 3.1629 |
Lattice 3 | 48.0000 | 35.8848 | 5.9301 |
Lattice 4 | 52.0000 | 30.0935 | 6.1656 |
Lattice 5 | 64.8000 | 7.9094 | 2.0723 |
Lattice 6 | 40.0864 | 8.8467 | 9.8194 |
Lattice 7 | 59.9136 | 8.1076 | 3.4133 |
Lattice 8 | 22.7736 | 29.9924 | 19.2402 |
Lattice 9 | 77.2264 | 10.4106 | 0.9591 |
Lattice 10 | 42.8672 | 21.1969 | 12.3903 |
Lattice 11 | 28.6480 | 48.9160 | 18.4019 |
Lattice 12 | 71.3520 | 14.3817 | 2.1877 |
Lattice 13 | 36.9416 | 25.2379 | 14.4458 |
Lattice 14 | 63.0584 | 18.2058 | 2.43572 |
Lattice 15 | 6.31440 | 88.0836 | 33.2377 |
Lattice 16 | 93.6864 | 1.4064 | 0.0704 |
Lattice 17 | 45.7240 | 29.0857 | 11.1030 |
Lattice 18 | 57.0864 | 26.7598 | 4.6127 |
Lattice 19 | 45.3984 | 10.3383 | 6.9349 |
Lattice 20 | 45.1312 | 20.6479 | 7.1886 |
Lattice nº | Relative Porosity (%) | Relative Compression Modulus E_Relative (%) | Relative Shear Modulus G_Relative (%) |
---|---|---|---|
New Lattice 1 | 35.1376 | 42.6450 | 13.7545 |
New Lattice 2 | 47.5272 | 21.5032 | 8.9878 |
New Lattice 3 | 28.6504 | 52.3093 | 18.7747 |
New Lattice 4 | 38.6408 | 35.7584 | 14.7934 |
New Lattice 5 | 64.8624 | 18.4618 | 3.1262 |
New Lattice 6 | 52.4728 | 25.2521 | 4.6577 |
New Lattice 7 | 71.3496 | 14.3355 | 2.1183 |
New Lattice 8 | 61.3592 | 17.7851 | 1.1427 |
Strategy | Relative Porosity MAE | Relative Elastic Modulus MAE | Relative Shear Modulus MAE | Strategy Global MAE |
---|---|---|---|---|
1st strategy | 39.073 | 26.814 | 13.193 | 26.360 |
2nd strategy | 18.476 | 18.926 | 9.263 | 15.555 |
3rd strategy | 17.646 | 20.207 | 5.634 | 14.496 |
4th strategy | 14.577 | 12.108 | 6.823 | 11.169 |
5th strategy | 15.496 | 18.713 | 9.289 | 14.500 |
6th strategy | 7.665 | 10.264 | 3.242 | 7.057 |
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Bermejillo Barrera, M.D.; Franco-Martínez, F.; Díaz Lantada, A. Artificial Intelligence Aided Design of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds Employing Virtual Tomography and 3D Convolutional Neural Networks. Materials 2021, 14, 5278. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185278
Bermejillo Barrera MD, Franco-Martínez F, Díaz Lantada A. Artificial Intelligence Aided Design of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds Employing Virtual Tomography and 3D Convolutional Neural Networks. Materials. 2021; 14(18):5278. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185278
Chicago/Turabian StyleBermejillo Barrera, María Dolores, Francisco Franco-Martínez, and Andrés Díaz Lantada. 2021. "Artificial Intelligence Aided Design of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds Employing Virtual Tomography and 3D Convolutional Neural Networks" Materials 14, no. 18: 5278. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185278