Review of Techniques for Improvement of Softening Behavior of Age-Hardening Aluminum Alloy Welded Joints
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Background
1.2. The Classification of Aluminum Alloys
1.3. The Strengthening Mechanism of Age-Hardening Aluminum Alloy
Materials | Temper | Elements | YS (MPa) | UTS (MPa) | El (%) | Ref. | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cu | Mg | Li | Mn | Zn | Fe | Si | Zr | Cr | Ti | Ag | V | Al | ||||||
2014 | T651 | 4.8 | 0.54 | 0.38 | 0.25 | 0.7 | 0.97 | balance | 410 | 469 | 9.14 | [15] | ||||||
2024 | T3 | 4.42 | 1.56 | 0.61 | 0.13 | balance | 468 | 506 | 16.8 | [16] | ||||||||
2024 | T3 | 4.9 | 1.28 | 0.629 | 0.43 | 0.012 | balance | 317 | 448 | 14 | [17] | |||||||
2024 | T351 | 4.5 | 1.4 | 0.6 | 0.03 | 0.17 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.02 | balance | 360 | 470 | 20.3 | [18] | ||||
2050 | T84 | 3.6 | 0.38 | 0.98 | 0.32 | 0.12 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.48 | balance | 465.9 | 553.3 | 15.13 | [19] | |||
2195 | T8 | 4.0 | 0.44 | 1.0 | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.4 | balance | 571.5 | 609.7 | 7.4 | [20] | ||||||
2195 | T8 | 3.99 | 0.38 | 1.09 | 0.17 | 0.1 | 0.42 | balance | 580 | 615 | 9 | [21] | ||||||
2219 | T6 | 6.48 | 0.32 | 0.04 | 0.23 | 0.49 | 0.2 | 0.06 | 0.08 | balance | 345 | 416 | 15 | [22] | ||||
2519 | T87 | 5.71 | 0.27 | 0.1 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.05 | balance | 427 | 452 | 11.2 | [23] | ||||||
6005 | T6 | 0.25 | 0.55 | 0.45 | 0.19 | 0.55 | 0.13 | 0.08 | balance | 272 | 285 | 8.4 | [24] | |||||
6061 | T6 | 0.21 | 0.87 | 0.056 | 0.61 | 0.104 | balance | 259 | 287 | 11 | [17] | |||||||
6061 | T913 | 0.2 | 0.89 | 0.04 | 0.37 | 0.64 | balance | 455 | 460 | 10 | [25] | |||||||
6063 | T6 | 0.002 | 0.525 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.09 | 0.412 | 0.001 | 0.014 | balance | 172 | 230 | 13.5 | [26] | ||||
6082 | T6 | 0.08 | 0.78 | 0.48 | 0.04 | 0.39 | 0.95 | 0.03 | 0.05 | balance | 283 | 324.8 | 12.2 | [27] | ||||
6101 | T6 | 0.05 | 0.65 | 0.03 | 0.5 | 0.5 | balance | 195 | 220 | 15 | [28] | |||||||
6351 | T6 | 0.1 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.95 | balance | 285 | 310 | 14 | [28] | |||||||
7039 | T6 | 0.05 | 2.37 | 0.68 | 4.69 | 0.69 | 0.31 | balance | 328 | 414 | 15.1 | [29] | ||||||
7050 | T76 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 0.0079 | 6.187 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.11 | 0.0048 | 0.02 | balance | 520 | 559 | 10 | [30] | |||
7075 | T6 | 1.5 | 2.5 | 0.04 | 5.6 | 0.3 | 0.08 | balance | 404 | 508 | 15 | [31] | ||||||
7075 | T6 | 1.51 | 2.38 | 0.02 | 5.41 | 0.25 | 0.07 | 0.19 | 0.02 | balance | 415.5 | 453 | 13.9 | [22] | ||||
7075 | T651 | 2.0 | 2.9 | 0.3 | 6.1 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.28 | 0.2 | balance | 510 | 563 | 16 | [32] | ||||
7075 | T651 | 1.7 | 2.4 | 0.04 | 5.8 | 0.19 | 0.05 | 0.2 | 0.03 | balance | 476 | 555 | 11.4 | [18] | ||||
7N01S | T5 | 0.011 | 1.34 | 0.317 | 4.19 | 0.1 | 0.046 | 0.122 | 0.233 | 0.043 | balance | 327 | 393 | 15.5 | [33] |
1.4. The Welding Softening Characteristics of Age-Hardening Aluminum Alloy
- (1)
- The characteristics of the precipitation phase in BMs
- (2)
- The thickness of welding plates
- (3)
- Welding technique and process
1.5. Research Status and Progress
- (1)
- Low-heat-input welding: such as laser beam welding (LBW), friction stir welding (FSW), and cold metal transfer (CMT) welding. To improve the mechanical properties of age-hardening aluminum alloy joints welded by the low heat input technique, researchers have focused on how to eliminate welding defects [41,42,43,44], optimize welding parameters [45,46,47] and innovate the technique [48,49,50,51,52,53].
- (2)
- Externally assisted cooling: involving spraying a cooling medium onto the surface of the workpiece and submerging the workpiece in the cooling medium. To reduce the effect of the welding thermal cycle on strengthening precipitates, researchers have sought to control the peak temperature range and enhance the cooling rate during welding [54,55].
- (3)
- Post-weld treatment: including post-weld heat treatment, post-weld surface modification treatment and post-weld rolling treatment. To further improve the mechanical properties of age-hardening aluminum alloy joints, researchers have sought to strengthen the softening zones through post-weld treatment, causing over-aged strengthening phases to reprecipitate or introducing dislocation strengthening [56,57,58].
2. Low-Heat-Input Welding
2.1. LBW
2.1.1. Adjusting the Chemical Composition in FZ
2.1.2. Reducing the Cracking Susceptibility
2.1.3. Controlling the Solidification Microstructure
2.1.4. Innovations in Laser Welding of Aluminum Alloys
- (1)
- Optimizing shielding gas environment
- (2)
- Applying a magnetic or ultrasound field during the welding process
- (3)
- Optimizing welding process
2.2. FSW
2.2.1. Optimization of Welding Process Parameters
2.2.2. Innovations in FSW of Aluminum Alloys
2.3. CMT Welding
2.3.1. The Characteristics of CMT Joints
2.3.2. Innovations in CMT of Aluminum Alloys
- (I)
- Hybrid CMT and another type of welding: Liang et al. [52] adopted TIG–CMT hybrid welding to join 4 mm 6061-T6. During the welding process, the TIG arc and the CMT arc did not interact; thus, adding the TIG arc did not cause the droplet transfer to be unstable. However, adding the TIG could increase the welding heat input and achieve deep penetration. To avoid serious softening in the HAZ, a low TIG current should be chosen. The highest tensile strength of the joint was approximately 54%, corresponding to the strength of the base metal. Han et al. [53] comparatively studied a 6 mm 6082-T6 aluminum alloy butt joint welded by laser-cold metal transfer hybrid welding and laser-pulsed metal inert gas hybrid welding, and the results showed that the softening degree and range of HAZ with laser-cold metal transfer hybrid welding were smaller than those achieved with laser-pulsed metal inert gas hybrid welding. In addition, the joint efficiency of laser-cold metal transfer hybrid welding could reach 84.7%, which was higher than that of the laser-pulsed metal inert gas hybrid welding, which was 82.4%. Hence, we can conclude that hybrid CMT and high-energy beam welding can obtain higher joint performance than hybrid CMT and arc welding with low energy density. Hybrid CMT and high-energy beam welding can have lower heat input than hybrid MIG and high energy beam welding. The same conclusion has been reported by Zhang et al. [166].
- (II)
- Control arc mode: Pang et al. [164] adopted the CMT + P technique to weld 4 mm 6061-T6. The CMT + P arc mode combined the advantages of the pulse arc mode and conventional CMT arc mode, as shown in Figure 16. The high pulse current provided more heat input during welding and the low short-circuit current guaranteed droplet transfer stability. The pulse stages and the conventional CMT stages could be adjusted; thus, the heat input of CMT + P was adjustable, which means that this technique could be used to weld thick sheets. Li et al. [167] studied the mechanical properties of 6 mm 6061-T6/7N01-T4 dissimilar aluminum alloy joints welded using the CMT + P technique and found that when increasing the CMT/P, which was the ratio of the number of CMT stages to P stages, the heat input decreased. The lower heat input caused the weld joints to present a lack of fusion or other defects. A higher heat input caused the performance of the joint to significantly degrade due to the over-aging of the strengthening phase in the HAZ. At the optimum heat input, the strength of the joint was approximately 60%, corresponding to the strength of the 6061-T6 base metal.
3. Externally Assisted Cooling Technique
3.1. FSW with Externally Assisted Cooling
3.2. Fusion Welding with Externally Assisted Cooling
4. Post-Weld Treatment
4.1. Post-Weld Heat Treatment
4.2. Post-Weld Surface Modification Treatment
4.2.1. Laser Shot Peening
4.2.2. Cold Spraying
4.3. Post-Weld Rolling Treatment
- (1)
- Post-weld entire rolling: After welding, the entire plate (including FZ, HAZ, BM) is rolled to a thickness less than the as-received base metal (the distance between the two rollers is set to less than the thickness of as-received base metal), as shown in Figure 23.
- (2)
- Post-weld partial rolling: After welding with a filler wire, only the weld reinforcement is rolled (the distance between the two rollers is set to the thickness of the received base metal), as shown in Figure 24.
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
- (1)
- Further research on the softening mechanism of aluminum alloys should be carried out to establish the relationship between the welding thermal cycle and joint grain size, strengthening phase characteristics, dislocation density and texture, in order to transform the analysis of the effect of welding heat input on joint softening and performance from qualitative analysis to quantitative analysis.
- (2)
- It is necessary to establish the precise response mechanism of an over-aged microstructure and the temperature field of a welded joint, monitor the state of the welding heat source and the information about the plate temperature field in real time and dynamically and scientifically control the parameters of the welding heat source, in order to precisely control the shape and performance of joints during the welding process.
- (3)
- According to the softening characteristics of the joint, it is necessary to develop post-weld local strengthening treatments to achieve the cooperative strengthening and toughening of the properties of each zone of the welded joint.
- (4)
- It is necessary to establish the relationship between the softening characteristics of the joint and fatigue performance, corrosion performance and forming performance, to promote the research and development of age-hardening aluminum alloy tailor-welded blank manufacturing technology and to expand the scope of application of the materials.
- (5)
- It is necessary to research the evolution of the microstructure and properties in the softening zone of welded joints and the strengthening of joints over time, to provide theoretical and data support for evaluating the service performance of structural parts.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Series | Main Alloying Elements | Type | Precipitate Sequence |
---|---|---|---|
1XXX | Pure Al (99% or greater) | Non-heat-treatable | |
2XXX | Al-Cu alloys | Heat-treatable | GP→θ″(coherent precipitate)→ θ′(semi-coherent precipitate)→θ(CuAl2, non-coherent precipitate) |
3XXX | Al-Mn alloys | Non-heat-treatable | |
4XXX | Al-Si alloys | Non-heat-treatable | |
5XXX | Al-Mg alloys | Non-heat-treatable | |
6XXX | Al-Mg-Si alloys | Heat-treatable | GP→β″(coherent precipitate)→ β′(semi-coherent precipitate)→β(Mg2Si, non-coherent precipitate) |
7XXX | Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys | Heat-treatable | GP→η″(coherent precipitate)→ η′(semi-coherent precipitate)→η(MgZn2, non-coherent precipitate) |
8XXX | Al + other elements | Al-Li Heat-treatable | δ′(Al3Li, coherent precipitate)→ δ (AlLi, non-coherent precipitate) |
Basic Temper | Definition |
---|---|
F (As fabricated) | During the shaping process, the thermal condition or strain hardening does not need any special control. |
O (Annealed) | Aluminum alloys are treated under high-temperature conditions to obtain optimal toughness, ductility and workability. |
H (Strain hardened) | Aluminum alloys are treated by strain-hardening method to increase the strength, with or without supplementary thermal treatment. |
W (Solution heat-treated) | An unstable temper, rather limited designation. The aluminum alloys are subjected to spontaneous aging at room temperature after solution heat treatment. |
T (Thermally treated) | Aluminum alloys are thermally treated to produce stable tempers different to F, O or H, with or without supplementary strain-hardening. |
Subdivision of T Temper | Process |
---|---|
T1 | Cooled from a high-temperature shaping process and naturally aged. |
T2 | Cooled from a high-temperature shaping process, cold worked, and naturally aged. |
T3 | Solution heat-treated, cold worked, and naturally aged. |
T4 | Solution heat-treated and naturally aged. |
T5 | Cooled from a high-temperature shaping process and artificially aged. |
T6 | Solution heat-treated and artificially aged. |
T7 | Solution heat-treated and over-aged/stabilized. |
T8 | Solution heat-treated, cold worked, and artificially aged. |
T9 | Solution heat-treated, artificially aged, and cold worked. |
T10 | Cooled from a high-temperature shaping process, cold worked, and artificially aged. |
BM | Temper | BM Thickness (mm) | Ultimate Strength (MPa) | Joint Efficiency = Joint/BM (%) | Fracture Location | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BM | Joint | ||||||
2024 | T3 | 3 | 463.0 | 364.0 | 78.6 | FZ | [62] |
2060 | T8 | 2 | 494.4 | 315.0 | 63.7 | FZ | [63] |
2060 | T8 | 1 | 497.5 | 347.7 | 69.9 | FZ | [63] |
2090 | T8 | 1.6 | 408.0 | 335.0 | 82.1 | FZ | [64] |
6022 | T4 | 1 | 232.9 | 170.0 | 73.0 | FZ | [65] |
6061 | T4 | 1 | 250.0 | 230.0 | 92.0 | FZ | [66] |
6061 | T6 | 4 | − | 220.0~231.0 | ~70.0 | FZ | [67] |
7075 | T6 | 2 | 592.1 | 358.2 | 60.5 | FZ | [68] |
7075 | T6 | 2 | 588 | 406.0 | 69.0 | FZ | [69] |
Al-Zn-Mg-Cu | T6 | 2 | 675.9 | 471.1 | 69.7 | FZ | [70] |
BM/ Temper | Plate Thickness (mm) | Ultimate Strengthof BM (MPa) | Filler Wire | Welding Method | Ultimate Strength of Joint (MPa) | Joint Efficiency= Joint/BM (%) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2519 T87 | 20 | 479 | Self-made | MIG | 275 | 57.4 | [94] |
Laser-MIG | 295 | 61.6 | |||||
6005 T6 | 5 | 276 | ER5356 | MIG | 190 | 68.8 | [95] |
Laser-MIG | 206 | 74.6 | |||||
6N01S T5 | 8 | 292 | ER5356 | MIG | 210 | 71.9 | [96] |
Laser-MIG | 243 | 83.2 | |||||
6005A T6 | 4 | 303 | ER5087 | MIG | 225 | 74.3 | [97] |
Laser-MIG | 250 | 82.5 | |||||
6N01 T5 | 4 | 260 | ER5356 | MIG | 183 | 70.4 | [98] |
Laser-MIG | 202 | 77.7 |
BM | Temper | BM Thickness (mm) | Ultimate Strength (MPa) | Joint Efficiency = Joint/BM (%) | Fracture Location | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BM | Joint | ||||||
2014 | T6 | 1 | 329.0 | 242.0 | 73.6 | TMAZ | [113] |
2014 | T6 | 5 | 470.0 | 285.0 | 60.6 | interface of NZ and TMAZ | [114] |
2014 | T651 | 6 | 469.0 | 323.0 | 68.9 | HAZ | [13] |
2017 | T451 | 6 | 446.0 | 351.03 | 78.7 | NZ | [115] |
2024 | T351 | 6 | 481.0 | 409.0 | 85.0 | interface of NZ and TMAZ | [116] |
2024 | T351 | 6 | 481.0 | 395.0 | 82.1 | interface of NZ and TMAZ | [117] |
2060 | T8 | 2 | 530.0 | 440.0 | 83.0 | NZ | [118] |
2060 | T8 | 2 | 532.0 | 435.0 | 81.0 | interface of NZ and TMAZ | [119] |
2198 | T8 | 3.2 | 488.5 | 397.2 | 81.3 | NZ | [120] |
2219 | T6 | 13 | 443.0 | 298.0 | 67.3 | TMAZ | [121] |
6005 | T6 | 10 | 285.0 | 215.0 | 75.4 | HAZ | [22] |
6061 | T4 | 6.35 | − | 229.0 | 93.0 | HAZ | [122] |
6061 | T6 | 0.8 | 351.7 | 292.6 | 83.2 | HAZ | [123] |
6061 | T6 | 1 | 304.0 | 265.0 | 87.2 | interface of HAZ and BM | [124] |
6061 | T6 | 3 | 322.0 | 233.0 | 72.4 | NZ | [125] |
6061 | T6 | 5 | 270.0 | 202.0 | 74.8 | interface of HAZ and TMAZ | [126] |
6061 | T6 | 6 | 283.0 | 246.0 | 86.9 | HAZ | [127] |
6082 | T6 | 2 | 310.0 | 202.67 | 65.4 | HAZ | [128] |
6082 | T6 | 2 | 318.4 | 218.5 | 68.6 | HAZ | [129] |
6082 | T6 | 3 | 305.0 | 216.0 | 70.8 | HAZ | [130] |
7020 | T6 | 4.5 | 372.0 | 353.0 | 95.0 | NZ | [131] |
7039 | T6 | 5 | 414.0 | 354.4 | 85.6 | HAZ | [132] |
7055 | T4 | 1.8 | 542.5 | 450.2 | 83.0 | TMAZ | [133] |
7075 | T6 | 0.5 | 544.6 | 482.0 | 88.5 | interface of NZ and TMAZ | [134] |
7075 | T6 | 1.5 | 585.0 | 500.0 | 85.5 | TMAZ | [135] |
7075 | T6 | 5 | 586.0 | 487.0 | 83.1 | HAZ | [136] |
7075 | T651 | 6.35 | 622.0 | 468.0 | 75.2 | HAZ | [137] |
BM | Temper | BM Thickness (mm) | Filler Wire | Ultimate Strength (MPa) | Joint Efficiency = Joint/BM (%) | Fracture Location | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BM | Joint | |||||||
2198 | T8 | 2 | ER4043 | 470.0 | 270.0 | 57.4 | Fusion line | [160] |
6005 | T6 | 3 | ER4043 | 270.0 | 171.6 | 63.6 | FZ | [159] |
6061 | T6 | 3 | ER4043 | 318.0 | 215.0 | 67.6 | HAZ | [161] |
6082 | T4 | 2 | ER5356 | 296.0 | − | 79.0 | FZ | [162] |
7075 | T6 | 2 | ER5356 | − | − | 60.0 | FZ | [154] |
7075 | T6 | 2 | ER5356 | 597.0 | 312.0 | 52.3 | FZ | [163] |
7475 | T761 | 2.38 | ER5356 | 592.0 | 531.0 | 89.7 | FZ | [153] |
7475 | T761 | 2.38 | ER4043 | 592.0 | 452.0 | 76.4 | FZ | [153] |
BM | Temper | BM Thickness (mm) | Ultimate Strengthof BM (MPa) | Cooling Condition | Ultimate Strength of Joint (MPa) | Joint Efficiency = Joint/BM (%) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2014 | T651 | 6 | 469 | normal | 323 | 68.9 | [13] |
water cooling | 379 | 80.8 | |||||
2219 | T6 | 7.5 | 432 | normal | 340 | 78.7 | [168] |
underwater | 360 | 83.3 | |||||
2519 | T87 | 6 | 452 | normal | 267 | 59.1 | [169] |
underwater | 345 | 76.3 | |||||
6061 | T6 | 3 | 310 | normal | 239 | 77.1 | [170] |
underwater | 274 | 88.4 | |||||
6061 | T6 | 6 | − | normal | 182 | − | [171] |
underwater | 218 | − | |||||
6082 | T6 | 3 | 305 | normal | 215 | 70.5 | [172] |
underwater | 241 | 79.0 | |||||
7075 | T6 | − | − | normal | − | ~70.5 | [173] |
underwater | − | ~73.5 |
Materials /Ref. | BM Thickness | Welding Process | Ultimate Strength (MPa) | As-Welded Joint Efficiency | PWHT Process | PWHTed Joint Efficiency | Conclusion | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BM | Joint | |||||||
2219-T87 [187] | 8 mm | Variable polarity tungsten inert gas (VPTIG) welding with ER2325 filler wire | 470.0 | 250.0 | 53.2% | ST:535 °C, 30 min AT:175 °C, 12 h | 76.0% | The microstructure of the PWHTed joint is more homogeneous than that of the as-welded joint; PWHTed joints not only have better tensile strength but also have better stress corrosion cracking resistance. |
2219-T6 [188] | 8 mm | (1) VPTIG welding with ER2325 filler wire | 425.0 | (1) 246.0 (2) 242.0 | (1) 57.9% (2) 56.9% | AT:175 °C, 12 h | (1) 63.8% (2) 69.6% | After post-weld aging treatment, more strengthening phases reprecipitate in HAZ of pre-weld solution-treated joint. |
(2) ST: 535 °C, 1.5 h VPTIG welding with ER2325 filler wire | ||||||||
6061-T6 2024-T6 [189] | 4 mm | FSW(1) Advancing Side: AA6061 Retreating Side: AA2024 | 310.0 492.0 | (1)183.0 (2) 184.0 | (1) 59.0% (2) 59.0% | ST: 520 °C, 1 h AT: 165 °C, 18 h | (1) 82.5% (2) 74.0% | The position of alloys does not affect the strength of the joint, but it influences the strength of the joint by PWHT. |
(2) Advancing Side: AA2024 Retreating Side: AA6061 | ||||||||
2024-T3 [190] | 6 mm | FSW | 412.0 | 309.0 | 75.0% | (1) ST: 493 °C, 2 h AT: 190 °C, 10 h (2) ST: 493 °C, 2.5 h AT: 200 °C, 10 h | (1) 94.2% (2) 92.7% | The evolution of strengthening phases affects not only strength but also ductility and fatigue crack growth rates. |
Al-Cu-Li T8 (solution treated at 540 °C for 1 h, 5% deformation, aged at 152 °C for 5 h) [191] | 2 mm | FSW | 413.0 | 379.0 | 91.8% | Deformation: 3% rolling AT: 152 °C, 30 h | 124.7% | The pre-deformation before aging treatment introduces a large number of additional dislocations into the joint; the high density of dislocations usually act as nucleation sites for strengthening precipitates. |
7075-T6 [192] | 3.17 mm | FSW: (1) rotation rate: 1000 rpm Travel speed: 150 mm/min | 563.5 | (1) 449.9 (2) 382.1 | (1) 79.8% (2) 67.8% | ST: 485 °C, 4 h AT:140 °C, 6 h | (1) 89.1% (2) 90.8% | The joints have different tensile properties, mainly owing to the different welding process parameters. However, after the post-weld heat treatment, the joints have similar tensile strength. |
(2) rotation rate: 1500 rpm Travel speed: 400 mm/min | ||||||||
6013-T4 [193] | 1.6 mm | (1) LBW with AlSi12 alloy powder | 345.0 | (1) 316.0 (2) 297.0 (3) 285.0 (4) 250.0 (5) 291.0 (6) 247.0 | (1) 91.6% (2) 86.1% (3) 82.6% (4) 72.5% (5) 84.3% (6) 71.6% | AT:191 °C, 4 h | (1) 104.9% (2) 100.0% (3) 99.1% (4) 76.8% (5) 99.4% (6) 78.0% | The chemical composition and type of filler powder can not only influence the performance of as-welded joints, but also have strong effect on the performance of PWHTed joints. |
(2) LBW with AlSi12 mixed powder | ||||||||
(3) LBW with AlSi12Mg5 alloy powder | ||||||||
(4) LBW with AlSi12Mg5 mixed powder | ||||||||
(5) LBW with AlMgSi1 alloy powder | ||||||||
(6) LBW with AlMgSi1 mixed powder | ||||||||
6061-T6 7075-T6 [194] | Friction welding | 304.0 569.0 | 228.0 | 75.0% | (1) ST: 500 °C, 1 h (2) ST:520 °C, 1 h AT: 160 °C, 8 h (3) AT: 160 °C, 8 h | (1) 67.1% (2) 96.0% (3) 84.2% | Solution-treated (1) joint has lower tensile strength due to the complete dissolution of finer precipitates; Artificially aged (3) joint has marginally improved tensile strength due to the formation of finer precipitates; Solution+ artificially aged (2) joint has dramatically improved tensile strength due to the formation of many finer precipitates. | |
7039-T6 [195] | 5 mm | FSW | 414.0 | 354.4 | 85.6% | (1) AT: room temperature, more than one year (2) AT: 120 °C, 18 h (3) AT: 100 °C, 8 h +150 °C, 24 h (4) ST: 480 °C, 0.5 h (5) ST: 480 °C, 1 h AT: 165 °C, 6 h | (1) 94.9% (2) 92.1% (3) 74.6% (4) 61.3% (5) 73.7% | Natural aging (1) results in the formation of fine and uniformly distributed strengthening precipitates in joint compared to other PWHT; artificial aging (2) and step aging (3) result in the joint forming agglomerated spherical strengthening precipitates; solution treatment (4) and solution+ artificial aging (5) result in strengthening precipitates being dissolved in weld nugget zone and severely coarsened in HAZs. |
2024-T4 [196] | 3 mm | FSW | 492.0 | 389.0 | 79.0% | (1) ST: 510 °C, 2.5 h AT: room temperature, 8 months (2) ST: 510 °C, 2.5 h AT:100 °C, 10 h (3) ST: 510 °C, 2.5 h AT:190 °C, 10 h | (1) 81.7% (2) 77.0% (3) 87.4% | PWHT can improve the FSW joint efficiency, but solution heat treatments at temperatures above 500 °C can cause abnormal coarsening of the grains in the weld zone, which results in mechanical properties lower than the base metal. |
7075-T6 [184] | 5 mm | FSW | 559.0 | 460.0 | 82.3% | (1) ST: 400 °C, 0.25 h + 450 °C, 0.25 h + 400 °C, 0.25 h + 450 °C, 0.25 h + 400 °C, 0.25 h + 450 °C, 0.25 h (frequently heated between 400 °C and 480 °C for 1.5 h) (2) ST: (1) AT: 130 °C, 6 h (3) ST: (1) AT: 130 °C, 12 h (4) ST: (1) AT: 130 °C, 18 h (5) ST: (1) AT: 130 °C, 24 h (6) ST: (1) AT: 130 °C, 36 h | (1) 88.1% (2) 94.7% (3) 97.3% (4) 100.0% (5) 110.8% (6) 89.1% | The cyclic solution treatment results in the repetitive partial dissolution of large precipitates, contributing to formation of fine, metastable precipitates, and abnormal grain growth phenomenon does not take place. The peak-aged state is 130 °C, 24 h. Aging for 36 h causes precipitate over-aging; the coarsening and agglomeration of precipitate particles occurs. |
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Cheng, J.; Song, G.; Zhang, X.; Liu, C.; Liu, L. Review of Techniques for Improvement of Softening Behavior of Age-Hardening Aluminum Alloy Welded Joints. Materials 2021, 14, 5804. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195804
Cheng J, Song G, Zhang X, Liu C, Liu L. Review of Techniques for Improvement of Softening Behavior of Age-Hardening Aluminum Alloy Welded Joints. Materials. 2021; 14(19):5804. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195804
Chicago/Turabian StyleCheng, Jiwen, Gang Song, Xiaosheng Zhang, Chunbai Liu, and Liming Liu. 2021. "Review of Techniques for Improvement of Softening Behavior of Age-Hardening Aluminum Alloy Welded Joints" Materials 14, no. 19: 5804. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195804