Graphene Nanostructures by Pulsed Laser Ablation in Liquids: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Why Graphene?
1.2. Methods of Synthesizing Graphene (Chemical/Physical)
1.3. Why PLAL?
2. Fundamentals of PLAL
2.1. Experimental Setup for Nanostructure Formation via PLAL
2.2. Laser–Matter Interaction
2.3. Graphene Formation Mechanisms
2.4. Characterizing Graphene Nanostructures
2.4.1. XRD Analysis
2.4.2. XPS Spectroscopy
2.4.3. Raman Spectroscopy
2.4.4. UV-Vis Absorbance Spectroscopy
2.4.5. Photoluminescence Emission (PL)
2.4.6. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR)
3. Graphene Nanostructures Prepared by PLAL
3.1. Graphene and Graphene-Oxide Nanosheets
3.1.1. Liquid Medium
3.1.2. Liquid Temperature
3.1.3. Laser Wavelength
3.1.4. Laser Fluence
3.1.5. Irradiation Time/Pulse Duration/Repetition Rate
3.1.6. Target Material
3.1.7. Extending PLAL Technique
3.2. Graphene and Graphene-Oxide Quantum Dots
3.2.1. Liquid Medium
3.2.2. Laser Wavelength
3.2.3. Laser Fluence
3.2.4. Irradiation Time/Pulse Duration/Repetition Rate
3.2.5. Target Material
3.2.6. Extending PLAL Technique
4. Applications of PLAL Graphene Nanostructures
4.1. Bio-Applications
4.2. Catalysis
4.3. Energy-Relevant Applications
5. Summary and Outlook
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characterization Method | Description | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|
XRD | Graphene | 2θ = 26.5° (002), 42.3° (100), 44.5°(101), 54.6° (004), and 77.4° (110) | [63] |
Graphene oxide | 2θ ≅ 9–11° (001), shifts depending on amount of trapped oxygen to 2θ ≅ 12–17° | [16,24] | |
XPS | C 1s O 1s | Binding energy = 284 eV Binding energy = 532 eV | [64] |
Raman spectroscopy | D-band G-band 2D-band | Raman shift = 1330–1360 cm−1 Raman shift = 1560–1600 cm−1 Raman shift = 2400–1700 cm−1 I2D > IG decreased layer thickness ID > IG increased disorder and poor quality | [65,66] |
UV-Vis spectroscopy | Graphene Carbon material | No peak due to transparency Peak in the range 260–270 nm (π–π* transition of C=C bond). Peak in the range 270–350 nm (n-π* transition of the C=O bond). | [63,67] |
PL emission spectroscopy | GQDs GOQDs | Blue emission Mixed blue and green emission | [68] |
FTIR spectroscopy | O-H stretching C-H stretching C-O-C bonds | 3420 cm−1 2930 cm−1 1633 cm−1 1068 cm−1 | [69] |
Wavelength | Fluence/Energy/Power | Repetition Rate | Pulse Width | Target/Solvent | Irradiation Time | Size | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
248 nm | 2.5, 3.12 to 3.75 J/cm2 | 10 Hz | Graphite target/ de-ionized water | 30 min | Bilayer graphene | [66] | |
532 nm | 5J/cm2 | 10 Hz | 5 ns | Graphite target/ distilled water with assisted electric field | Few min–2 h | 2–6 layers flower-like | [54] |
532 nm | 0.5, 2.2 and 3.6 J/cm2 | 10 Hz | 5 ns | Graphite disk/ distilled water | 15 min | 1–4 layers | [55] |
532 nm | 0.5, 0.8, 1.1, 1.4, and 1.8 J/cm2 | 5 Hz | 7 ns | Graphite plate/ liquid nitrogen | -- | Bi- to multi-layer | [56] |
532 nm | 0.5 J/mm2 | -- | 7 ns | Graphite plate/ acetone | 10, 20, 30, 40, 60 s | Bi- and multi-layer graphene | [58] |
532 nm | 0.5 J/cm2 | 5 Hz | 7 ns | Graphite target/ Liquid nitrogen, distilled water | -- | few-layer graphene | [65] |
532 nm | 0.4 J/cm2 | 10 Hz | 6 ns | Graphite rod/ distilled water | 10 min | rGO nanosheets | [76] |
532 nm | 1 J/cm2 | 5 Hz | 7 ns | HOPG/ NMP, SDBS | 2 h | thickness 1 nm and 10 μm in size. | [77] |
532 nm | 0.7 J/cm2 | 5 Hz | 7 ns | Graphite target/ liquid nitrogen, de-ionized water, 0.01 M CTAB | 5000 pulses | Few-layer GO | [78] |
532 nm | 0.5 J/cm2 | 5 Hz | 7 ns | Graphite targets/ 0.02, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08, and 0.1 M CTAB | -- | multilayer GO nanosheets | [79] |
532 nm | 0.5 J/ cm2 | 5 Hz | 7 ns | Graphite targets/ liquid nitrogen and 0.04 M CTAB | 5000 pulses | Multilayer GO nanosheets | [80] |
532 nm | 0.813 mW | 1, 10, 20, 50, and 100 Hz | 1.5 ns | Graphite sheet/ de-ionized water | 10 min | 110–287 nm | [81] |
800 nm | 20–30 J/cm2 | 1 kHz | 35 fs | HOPG/ water | 20 min | PG 6 layers thick Pores 15–20 nm | [82] |
1064 nm | 0.92 J/cm2 | 10 Hz | 10 ns | Graphene nanoplatelets/ ethanol | 30 min | 26 nm | [16] |
1064 nm | 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4 J. | 10 Hz | 10 ns | Graphite flakes/ de-ionized water | -- | 3–10 layers | [32] |
1064 nm | 0.6 J/cm2 | 5 Hz | 7 ns | Graphite target/ water @ Temp: 0, 20, 35, 50 and 65 °C | 1000 s | Few-layer graphene | [57] |
1064 nm | 1.5 J/cm2 | 5 Hz | 7 ns | Graphite plate/ 0.02, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08, and 0.1 M CTAB | 8000 pulses | few layers graphene | [62] |
1064 nm | 600 mJ | 10 Hz | 10 ns | Graphene nanoplatelets/ ethanol | 60 min | 100–300 nm | [63] |
1064 nm | 6 J/cm2 | 5 Hz | 10 ns | Graphite target/ Liquid nitrogen | 20 min | few-layer graphene | [83] |
1064 nm | 1.5 J/cm2 | 5 Hz | 7 ns | Graphite plate/ distilled water, acetone, alcohol, CTAB | 1000 s | Few-layer graphene | [84] |
1064 nm | 1.5 J/cm2 | 5 Hz | 7 ns | Graphite plate/ distilled water, liquid nitrogen, acetone, alcohol, 0.01M and 0.1M CTAB | 1000 s | Few-layer graphene | [85] |
1064 nm | 0.5, 0.8, 1.1, 1.4 and 1.8 J/cm2 | 5 Hz | 7 ns | Graphite plate/ Liquid nitrogen | 5000 pulses | few-layer graphene | [86] |
1064 nm | 80 mJ 160 mJ | -- | 7 ns | Graphite target/ water | 100 pulses | MWCNTs diameter 25–75 nm PG sheet pours 7–16 nm | [87] |
1064 nm | 60 J/cm2 | 10 Hz | 10 ns | dry-cell graphite electrode (DGE) | 20–50 min | Bilayer graphene | [88] |
532 nm 1064 nm | 15.4 J/cm2 | 2 Hz | 9 ns | Graphite pellet/ double-distilled water | 30 min | MWCNT diameter 20–75 nm | [12] |
532 nm 1064 nm | 50 mJ/pulse | 5 Hz | 10 ns | Flexible graphite targets and nuclear graphite/ acetone, DMF, de-ionized water | 5 min | <10 layers | [89] |
532 nm 1064 nm | 0.5 J/cm2 0.8 J/cm2 | 5 Hz | 7 ns | Graphite plate/ liquid nitrogen | 5000 pulses | Bilayer graphene | [90] |
266 nm 532 nm 1064 nm | 0.38 J/cm2 (@266 nm) 1.33 J/cm2 (@532 nm) 3.33 & 6.61 J/cm2 (@1064 nm) | 10 Hz | 18 ns | Graphite target/ double-distilled water. | -- | multilayer rGO nanosheets | [91] |
Wavelength | Fluence/Energy/Power | Repetition Rate | Pulse Width | Target/Solvent | Irradiation Time | Size | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
355 nm | 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.50, and 2.00 J | 10 Hz | -- | MWCNTs/ ethanol | 10 min | 1–5 nm 3–4 layers | [38] |
355 nm | 0.1 J | 20 Hz | 10 ns | Coal/ ethanol | 5 min | 5–30 nm | [95] |
355 nm | 1.5 W | 10 Hz | 10 ns | graphite flakes/ ethanol | 30 min | on-GQDs ~3.8 nm off-GOQDs ~4.1 nm | [96] |
355 nm | 1 W | 10 Hz | 10 ns | Graphite flakes/ ethanol with DETA | 30 min | <6 nm | [97] |
355 nm | 280 mJ/pulse | -- | -- | WO3 NPS/ de-ionized water | 30 min | -- | [98] |
355 nm | 2 J/cm2 | 10 Hz | 5 ns | Aqueous graphene dispersion | 30 min | Thickness 1 nm | [99] |
532 nm | 7.5 J/cm2 | 100 Hz | 10 ns | Graphite powder/ DMF | -- | 1.5–7.5 nm | [18] |
532 nm | 1.30, 0.11, 0.57, 0.95 W | 10 Hz | 5–7 ns | nCNOs pellet/ de-ionized water | 7 h | 1.8 nm diameter Single-layer | [92] |
532 nm | 0.8 J/cm2 | 10 Hz | 7 ns | Glassy carbon plate/ de-ionized water | 5 min | 10–20 nm | [100] |
532 nm | 1 J/cm2 | 10 Hz | 7 ns | Glassy carbon plate/ de-ionized water and THF | 30 min | 6–15 nm | [101] |
532 nm | 0.131 J/cm2 | 10 Hz | 10 ns | activated carbon (4% ash)/ ethanol + double-distilled water ± NaOH | 30 min | 4–14 nm | [102] |
532 nm | 4.5 J/cm2 | 50 Hz | 6–8 ns | nCNOs pellet/ ammonia, ethylenediamine, pyridine | 1 h | 14 nm | [103] |
532 nm | 0.21, 0.025, 0.014, 0.006, 0.008 J/cm2 | 1, 10, 20, 50, 100 Hz | 1.5 ns | Graphite target/ de-ionized water | 10 min | 110–287 nm | [81] |
800 nm | -- | 76 MHz | 150 fs | Zn3N2 target/ ethanol | -- | ~ 4 nm | [17] |
800 nm | 20–30 J/cm2 | 1 kHz | 35 fs | HOPG/ water | 20 min | S 2–5 nm | [82] |
800 nm | 150–1000 J/cm2 | 1 kHz | 150 fs | carbon powder/ PEG200N | 3 h | 1–4 nm | [104] |
800 nm | 100–400 mW | 1 kHz | 150 fs | graphite powder/ aminotoluene liquid | 2 h | 2.87 nm | [105] |
1030 nm | 3.5 W | 100 kHz | 365 fs | LIG/ water and ammonia | -- | 3 nm 1–3 layers | [106] |
1064 nm | 3.6 W | 10 Hz | 7 ns | Silver/copper disk/ GO + de-ionized water | -- | 3.5–27.3 nm | [14] |
1064 nm | 750 mJ/pulse | 10 Hz | 10 ns | Charcoal powder/ ethanol | 20 min | ~21 nm | [40] |
1064 nm | 3.0 J/pulse | 2 Hz | 5 ms | Graphite target/ ethanol | Stage 1: 5000 pulse Stage 2: 25,000 | 200–500 nm | [107] |
1064 nm | 3.0 J/pulse | 2 Hz | 5 ms | Graphite target/ DMF | Stage 1: 5000 pulse Stage 2: 25,000 | 80–130 nm | [108] |
1064 nm | 40 mJ | 10 Hz | 6 ns | Graphite plate/ PEG–water solution | 30 min | <10 nm | [109] |
1064 nm | 6.0 × 106 W/cm2 | -- | -- | Graphite powder/ water PEG200N | 2 h | ~3 nm | [110] |
1064 nm | 0.18–7.52W | 25 kHz | 200 ns | Graphite target/ de-ionized water, isopropanol | -- | <100 nm | [111] |
1064 nm | 0.17, 0.42, 0.70, 0.90, 1.0 J/cm2 | 15 Hz | 7 ns | Graphite disk/ acetone | 180 s | 4–20 nm | [112] |
1064 nm | 0.3, 0.6, 0.9 J/cm2 | 10, 12, 14 kHz | 700 ps | Graphite rods/ de-ionized water | 1200, 1500, and 1800 pulses | 42–75 nm | [113] |
1064 nm | 30 mJ/pulse | 10 Hz | 10 ns | A mixture of nickel (II) oxide powder/benzene | 30 min | 2–6 nm | [114] |
1064 nm | Stage 1: 2 J/cm2 Stage 2: 15 J/cm2 | 10 Hz | 10 ns | Graphite target/ urea ± DIW | Stage 1: 15 min Stage 2: 60 min | <100 nm | [115] |
1064 nm | 20 mJ/pulse | 10 Hz | 3–6 ns | waste Platanus biomass/ formamide | 30 min | 8 nm | [116] |
1064 nm | 100 mJ | 20 Hz | 8 ns | carbon powder/ PEG200N | -- | 3 nm | [117] |
355 nm 532 nm | 50 mJ | 10 Hz | MWCNTs/ ethanol | 10 min | 1–5 nm | [68] | |
532 nm 1064 nm | 80 mJ | 10 Hz 20 Hz | 9 ns | graphite plate/ de-ionized water | 45 min | nanoballs 2.68 µm nanowires 1.89 µm | [67] |
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Altuwirqi, R.M. Graphene Nanostructures by Pulsed Laser Ablation in Liquids: A Review. Materials 2022, 15, 5925. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15175925
Altuwirqi RM. Graphene Nanostructures by Pulsed Laser Ablation in Liquids: A Review. Materials. 2022; 15(17):5925. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15175925
Chicago/Turabian StyleAltuwirqi, Reem M. 2022. "Graphene Nanostructures by Pulsed Laser Ablation in Liquids: A Review" Materials 15, no. 17: 5925. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15175925