Investigations of the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 17-4 PH ss Printed Using a MarkForged Metal X
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental
2.1. Materials and Methods
2.2. Heat Treatment
2.3. Hardness and Tensile Testing
2.4. Microstructure and Phases
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Phase Identification
3.2. Microstructure
3.2.1. As Printed
3.2.2. Post-Fabrication Heat Treatment
3.2.3. Porosity
3.3. Hardness Testing
3.4. Tensile Testing
Fractography
4. Conclusions
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- The Markforged-Metal-X-manufactured 17-4 ss samples were predominantly martensitic in phase, with some retained austenitic phase. The XRD measurements exhibited partial transformation of the austenite phase into the martensite phase after the heat treatment. For the complete transformation of the austenite phase into an α′-bcc phase, a different heat treatment scheme than the H900 needs to be considered.
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- The microstructure of the Markforged-Metal-X-manufactured 17.4 ss was characterized by patterned voids or unfilled spaces that could eventually affect the mechanical integrity of the material. The voids are believed to have occurred mainly due to a lack of fusion of adjacent filaments.
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- The porosity analyzed in the dense region of the material was about 3.5%. Most of the larger pores observed were at the triple junctions that were rich in NbC precipitates.
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- Post-fabrication heat treatment enhanced the hardness by 17–28% and the tensile strength by 21–27%, depending on the heat treatment conditions.
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- The hardnesses and the tensile strengths of the samples under directly aged conditions were slightly lower than those samples tested after the solid solution and precipitation hardening heat treatment. The difference could have been due to the transformation of austenite into martensite structures following the solid solution heat treatment.
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- The hardness of the as-printed samples (331 ± 28 HV) and heat-treated samples under the H900 condition (417 ± 29 HV) were comparable with the reported values in the literature.
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- The maximum elongation achieved was about 3.6%, which was comparatively low relative to results from other AM techniques.
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- The maximum ultimate tensile strengths from the as-printed and H900 conditions were 551 and 1078 MPa, respectively. These were lower than most of the observations for conventional and AM methods.
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- The presumption for lower-strength 17-4 ss from the current study relative to reports in the literature based on the Markforged Metal X printer may have been due to differences in fabrication conditions (e.g., sintering temperature, soaking time, and build orientation concerning tensile load).
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- The inferiority of the tensile strength relative to other AM techniques could be related to incomplete fusion of the filament; this might have been due to the low sintering temperature, which left behind pattered voids; the infill orientation relative to the applied load; and the high pore concentration.
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- The results indicated that the Markforged printer is a promising technology given that the printing processes are fully developed and optimized.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Composition | Cr | Ni | Cu | Si | Mn | Nb | C | P | S | Fe |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
wt.% | 15–17 | 3–5 | 3–5 | 1 max | 1 max | 0.15–0.45 | 0.07 max | 0.04 max | 0.03 max | Bal |
Orientation of Part | (X, Y, Z) (180°, 0°, 180°) |
---|---|
Layer thickness | 0.125 mm after sintering |
Infill | Solid infill +45/−45° orientation |
Wall | 4 walls |
Surface boundary | 1 |
Sintering T | Ca. 85% of melting T |
Printing chamber T | 45 °C |
Sample | Solid Solution Heat Treatment (SHT) | Aging | Cooling | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
T (°C) | Soaking Time (h) | T (°C) | Time (h) | ||
H1A | 1038 | 0.5 | 482 | 1 | Air |
H2A | 1038 | 1 | 482 | 1 | Air |
H1Q | 1038 | 0.5 | 482 | 1 | Water |
H2Q | 1038 | 1 | 482 | 1 | Water |
DA | ---- | ---- | 482 | 1 | Air |
S1A | 1038 | 0.5 | …. | …. | Air |
S1Q | 1038 | 0.5 | …. | …. | Water |
AP | As printed |
Spot | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
wt. % | 26 | 24 | 36 | 25 | 30 | 31 | 28 | 0 | 0 |
Sample Condition | AM | SHT | Aging | YS | UTS | El | Hardness | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
°C/h | °C/h | MPa | MPa | % | HV | |||
AP | MfMX | 551 | 847 | 3.1 | 331 ± 28 | This work | ||
SA | MfMX | 482 | 832 | 986 | 2.6 | 407 ± 20 | This work | |
H1A | MfMX | 1038 | 482 | 513 | 1021 | 3.6 | 409 ± 26 | This work |
H2A | MfMX | 1038 | 482 | 602 | 1075 | 3.4 | 417 ± 29 | This work |
H1Q | MfMX | 1038 | 482 | 921 | 1078 | 3.0 | 408 ± 29 | This work |
H2Q | MfMX | 1038 | 482 | 892 | 1051 | 2.4 | 387 ± 26 | This work |
AP | MfMX | 800 | 1050 | 5 | 302 | [16] | ||
H900 | MfMX | 1038 | 482 | 1100 | 1250 | 6 | 354 | [16] |
AP | MfMX | 823 | 940 | 3.67 | [28] | |||
AP | L-PBF | 661 ± 24 | 1255 ± 3 | 9.9 ± 0.2 | 333 ± 2 | [29] | ||
H900 | L-PBF | 480/1 | 945 ± 12 | 1417 ± 6 | 11.7 ± 0.8 | 375 ± 3 | [29] | |
AP | L-PBF | 334.5 ± 15 | [27] | |||||
H900 | L-PBF | 1038/4 | 482/1 | 524.5 ± 6 | [27] | |||
As built | Wrought | 384.3 ± 8 | [27] | |||||
H900 | Wrought | 1038/4 | 482/1 | 450.1 ± 9 | [27] | |||
AP | L-PBF | 784 | 922 | 16.7 | 328 | [24] | ||
H900 | L-PBF | 1038/1/AC | 482/1 | 1280 | 1399 | 10.5 | [24] | |
AP | L-PBF | 570 | 944 | [7] | ||||
L-PBF | 788/2 | 482/1 | 1126 | 1457 | [7] |
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Akessa, A.D.; Tucho, W.M.; Lemu, H.G.; Grønsund, J. Investigations of the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 17-4 PH ss Printed Using a MarkForged Metal X. Materials 2022, 15, 6898. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196898
Akessa AD, Tucho WM, Lemu HG, Grønsund J. Investigations of the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 17-4 PH ss Printed Using a MarkForged Metal X. Materials. 2022; 15(19):6898. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196898
Chicago/Turabian StyleAkessa, Adugna D., Wakshum M. Tucho, Hirpa G. Lemu, and Jørgen Grønsund. 2022. "Investigations of the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 17-4 PH ss Printed Using a MarkForged Metal X" Materials 15, no. 19: 6898. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196898