Imperfections Formation in Thin Layers of NiTi Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Lattices Fabricated Using Laser Powder Bed Fusion
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. NiTi Powder
2.2. Design of TPMS Lattice Structures
2.3. Additive Manufacturing of the NiTi Samples
2.4. Metallographic Preparation
2.5. Microstructural Characterization
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Macroscopic Analysis
3.2. Microscopic Analysis
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Duerig, T.; Pelton, A.; Stockel, D. An overview of nitinol medical applications. Mater. Sci. Eng. 1999, 275, 149–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sofla, A.Y.N.; Meguid, S.A.; Tan, K.T.; Yeo, W.K. Shape Morphing of Aircraft Wing: Status and Challenges. Mater. Des. 2010, 31, 1284–1292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Furuya, Y.; Shimada, H. Shape Memory Actuators for Robotic Applications. Mater. Des. 1991, 12, 21–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stoeckel, D. Shape Memory Actuators for Automotive Applications. Mater. Des. 1990, 11, 302–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lagoudas, D.C. Shape Memory Alloys: Modeling and Engineering Applications; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2008; ISBN 0387476857. [Google Scholar]
- Kuphasuk, C.; Oshida, Y.; Andres, C.J.; Hovijitra, S.T.; Barco, M.T.; Brown, D.T. Electrochemical Corrosion of Titanium and Titanium-Based Alloys. J. Prosthet. Dent. 2001, 85, 195–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Moghaddam, N.S.; Elahinia, M.; Miller, M.; Dean, D. Enhancement of Bone Implants by Substituting Nitinol for Titanium (Ti-6Al-4V): A Modeling Comparison. In Proceedings of the Smart Materials, Adaptive Structures and Intelligent Systems; American Society of Mechanical Engineers: Louisville, KY, USA, 2014; Volume 46148, p. V001T03A031. [Google Scholar]
- De Wild, M.; Meier, F.; Bormann, T.; Howald, C.B.C.; Müller, B. Damping of Selective-Laser-Melted NiTi for Medical Implants. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 2014, 23, 2614–2619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wang, J.; Pan, Z.; Yang, G.; Han, J.; Chen, X.; Li, H. Location Dependence of Microstructure, Phase Transformation Temperature and Mechanical Properties on Ni-Rich NiTi Alloy Fabricated by Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2019, 749, 218–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kumar, S.S.; Marandi, L.; Balla, V.K.; Bysakh, S.; Piorunek, D.; Eggeler, G.; Das, M.; Sen, I. Microstructure—Property Correlations for Additively Manufactured NiTi Based Shape Memory Alloys. Materialia 2019, 8, 100456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mitchell, A.; Lafont, U.; Hołyńska, M.; Semprimoschnig, C. Additive Manufacturing—A Review of 4D Printing and Future Applications. Addit. Manuf. 2018, 24, 606–626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mahmoudi, M.; Tapia, G.; Franco, B.; Ma, J.; Arroyave, R.; Karaman, I.; Elwany, A. On the Printability and Transformation Behavior of Nickel-Titanium Shape Memory Alloys Fabricated Using Laser Powder-Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing. J. Manuf. Process. 2018, 35, 672–680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oliveira, J.P.; Miranda, R.M.; Braz Fernandes, F.M. Welding and Joining of NiTi Shape Memory Alloys: A Review. Prog. Mater. Sci. 2017, 88, 412–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cunningham, C.R.; Flynn, J.M.; Shokrani, A.; Dhokia, V.; Newman, S.T. Invited Review Article: Strategies and Processes for High Quality Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing. Addit. Manuf. 2018, 22, 672–686. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- DebRoy, T.; Wei, H.L.; Zuback, J.S.; Mukherjee, T.; Elmer, J.W.; Milewski, J.O.; Beese, A.M.; Wilson-Heid, A.; De, A.; Zhang, W. Additive Manufacturing of Metallic Components—Process, Structure and Properties. Prog. Mater. Sci. 2018, 92, 112–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abe, T.; Sasahara, H. Layer Geometry Control for the Fabrication of Lattice Structures by Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing. Addit. Manuf. 2019, 28, 639–648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dadbakhsh, S.; Vrancken, B.; Kruth, J.-P.; Luyten, J.; Van Humbeeck, J. Texture and Anisotropy in Selective Laser Melting of NiTi Alloy. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2016, 650, 225–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dadbakhsh, S.; Speirs, M.; Kruth, J.P.; Schrooten, J.; Luyten, J.; Van Humbeeck, J. Effect of SLM Parameters on Transformation Temperatures of Shape Memory Nickel Titanium Parts. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2014, 16, 1140–1146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, S.; Hassanin, H.; Attallah, M.M.; Adkins, N.J.E.; Essa, K. The Development of TiNi-Based Negative Poisson’s Ratio Structure Using Selective Laser Melting. Acta Mater. 2016, 105, 75–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ishizaki, K.; Komarneni, S.; Nanko, M. Porous Materials: Process Technology and Applications; Springer Science & Business Media: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2013; Volume 4, ISBN 1461558115. [Google Scholar]
- Kitagawa, S. Future Porous Materials. Acc. Chem. Res. 2017, 50, 514–516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barton, T.J.; Bull, L.M.; Klemperer, W.G.; Loy, D.A.; McEnaney, B.; Misono, M.; Monson, P.A.; Pez, G.; Scherer, G.W.; Vartuli, J.C. Tailored Porous Materials. Chem. Mater. 1999, 11, 2633–2656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gibson, L.J. Cellular Solids. Mrs Bull. 2003, 28, 270–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saghaian, S.E.; Amerinatanzi, A.; Moghaddam, N.S.; Majumdar, A.; Nematollahi, M.; Saedi, S.; Elahinia, M.; Karaca, H.E. Mechanical and Shape Memory Properties of Triply Periodic Minimal Surface (TPMS) NiTi Structures Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting. Biol. Eng. Med. 2018, 3, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shayesteh Moghaddam, N.; Taheri Andani, M.; Amerinatanzi, A.; Haberland, C.; Huff, S.; Miller, M.; Elahinia, M.; Dean, D. Metals for Bone Implants: Safety, Design, and Efficacy. Biomanufacturing Rev. 2016, 1, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yu, S.; Sun, J.; Bai, J. Investigation of Functionally Graded TPMS Structures Fabricated by Additive Manufacturing. Mater. Des. 2019, 182, 108021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santos, J.; Pires, T.; Gouveia, B.P.; Castro, A.P.G.; Fernandes, P.R. On the Permeability of TPMS Scaffolds. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2020, 110, 103932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jung, Y.; Torquato, S. Fluid Permeabilities of Triply Periodic Minimal Surfaces. Phys. Rev. E 2005, 72, 56319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rashed, M.G.; Ashraf, M.; Mines, R.A.W.; Hazell, P.J. Metallic Microlattice Materials: A Current State of the Art on Manufacturing, Mechanical Properties and Applications. Mater. Des. 2016, 95, 518–533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ye, X.-C.; Lin, X.-C.; Xiong, J.-Y.; Wu, H.-H.; Zhao, G.-W.; Fang, D. Electrical Properties of 3D Printed Graphite Cellular Lattice Structures with Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Architectures. Mater. Res. Express 2019, 6, 125609. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yoo, D.J. Computer-Aided Porous Scaffold Design for Tissue Engineering Using Triply Periodic Minimal Surfaces. Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. 2011, 12, 61–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tran, P.; Peng, C. Triply Periodic Minimal Surfaces Sandwich Structures Subjected to Shock Impact. J. Sandw. Struct. Mater. 2021, 23, 2146–2175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Han, L.; Che, S. An Overview of Materials with Triply Periodic Minimal Surfaces and Related Geometry: From Biological Structures to Self-assembled Systems. Adv. Mater. 2018, 30, 1705708. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Ketan, O.; Abu Al-Rub, R.K. Multifunctional Mechanical Metamaterials Based on Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Lattices. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2019, 21, 1900524. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, L.; Feih, S.; Daynes, S.; Chang, S.; Wang, M.Y.; Wei, J.; Lu, W.F. Energy Absorption Characteristics of Metallic Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Sheet Structures under Compressive Loading. Addit. Manuf. 2018, 23, 505–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, X.; Yang, Q.; Shi, Y.; Yang, L.; Wu, S.; Yan, C.; Shi, Y. Effect of Volume Fraction and Unit Cell Size on Manufacturability and Compressive Behaviors of Ni-Ti Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Lattices. Addit. Manuf. 2022, 54, 102737. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Speirs, M.; Van Hooreweder, B.; Van Humbeeck, J.; Kruth, J.P. Fatigue Behaviour of NiTi Shape Memory Alloy Scaffolds Produced by SLM, a Unit Cell Design Comparison. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2017, 70, 53–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Speirs, M.; Dadbakhsh, S.; Buls, S.; Kruth, J.P.; Van Humbeeck, J.; Schrooten, J.; Luyten, J. The Effect of SLM Parameters on Geometrical Characteristics of Open Porous NiTi Scaffolds. In High Value Manufacturing: Advanced Research in Virtual and Rapid Prototypin, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Advanced Research in Virtual and Rapid Prototyping, Leiria, Portugal, 1–5 October 2013; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2013; pp. 309–314. [Google Scholar]
- Viet, N.V.; Al-Rab, A.; Zaki, W. Mechanical Behavior of Shape Memory Alloy Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Foam Based on Schwarz Primitive. J. Eng. Mech. 2022, 148, 4022050. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amirjan, M.; Sakiani, H. Effect of Scanning Strategy and Speed on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Selective Laser Melted IN718 Nickel-Based Superalloy. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2019, 103, 1769–1780. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guo, M.; Ye, Y.; Jiang, X.; Wang, L. Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Residual Stress of Selective Laser Melted AlSi10Mg. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 2019, 28, 6753–6760. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, L.; Jiang, X.; Zhu, Y.; Ding, Z.; Zhu, X.; Sun, J.; Yan, B. Investigation of Performance and Residual Stress Generation of AlSi10Mg Processed by Selective Laser Melting. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2018, 2018, 7814039. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Catchpole-Smith, S.; Aboulkhair, N.; Parry, L.; Tuck, C.; Ashcroft, I.A.; Clare, A. Fractal Scan Strategies for Selective Laser Melting of ‘Unweldable’ Nickel Superalloys. Addit. Manuf. 2017, 15, 113–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alagha, A.N.; Hussain, S.; Zaki, W. Additive Manufacturing of Shape Memory Alloys: A Review with Emphasis on Powder Bed Systems. Mater. Des. 2021, 204, 109654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kruth, J.P.; Froyen, L.; Van Vaerenbergh, J.; Mercelis, P.; Rombouts, M.; Lauwers, B. Selective Laser Melting of Iron-Based Powder. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2004, 149, 616–622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shiomi, M.; Osakada, K.; Nakamura, K.; Yamashita, T.; Abe, F. Residual Stress within Metallic Model Made by Selective Laser Melting Process. CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol. 2004, 53, 195–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zaeh, M.F.; Branner, G. Investigations on Residual Stresses and Deformations in Selective Laser Melting. Prod. Eng. 2010, 4, 35–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ramos, D.; Belblidia, F.; Sienz, J. New Scanning Strategy to Reduce Warpage in Additive Manufacturing. Addit. Manuf. 2019, 28, 554–564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Ketan, O.; Abu Al-Rub, R.K. MSLattice: A Free Software for Generating Uniform and Graded Lattices Based on Triply Periodic Minimal Surfaces. Mater. Des. Process. Commun. 2020, 3, e205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, R.; Liu, J.; Shi, Y.; Wang, L.; Jiang, W. Balling Behavior of Stainless Steel and Nickel Powder during Selective Laser Melting Process. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2012, 59, 1025–1035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gu, D.; Shen, Y. Balling Phenomena during Direct Laser Sintering of Multi-Component Cu-Based Metal Powder. J. Alloys Compd. 2007, 432, 163–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, X.; Liu, X.; Zhang, D.; Shen, Z.; Liu, W. Balling Phenomena in Selective Laser Melted Tungsten. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2015, 222, 33–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gu, D.; Hagedorn, Y.-C.; Meiners, W.; Meng, G.; Batista, R.J.S.; Wissenbach, K.; Poprawe, R. Densification Behavior, Microstructure Evolution, and Wear Performance of Selective Laser Melting Processed Commercially Pure Titanium. Acta Mater. 2012, 60, 3849–3860. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, R.; Shi, Y.; Wang, Z.; Wang, L.; Liu, J.; Jiang, W. Densification Behavior of Gas and Water Atomized 316L Stainless Steel Powder during Selective Laser Melting. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2010, 256, 4350–4356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, D.Z.; Li, K.L.; Yu, C.F.; Ma, J.; Liu, W.; Shen, Z.J. Cracking Behavior in Additively Manufactured Pure Tungsten. Acta Metall. Sin. Engl. Lett. 2019, 32, 127–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Relative Density (%) | Scan Strategy | Laser Power (W) | Scan Speed (mm/s) | Hatch Spacing (μm) | Layer Thickness (μm) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
RD30 | 30 | Parallel with 90° rotation | 85 | 425 | 90 | 30 |
RD40 | 40 | Parallel with 90° rotation | 85 | 425 | 90 | 30 |
RD50 | 50 | Parallel with 90° rotation | 85 | 425 | 90 | 30 |
RD60 | 60 | Parallel with 90° rotation | 85 | 425 | 90 | 30 |
S1 | 30 | Parallel with 90° rotation | 85 | 425 | 90 | 30 |
S2 | 30 | Parallel with 0° rotation | 85 | 425 | 90 | 30 |
S3 | 30 | Inclined at 45° | 85 | 425 | 90 | 30 |
S4 | 30 | Spiral | 85 | 425 | 90 | 30 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Hussain, S.; Alagha, A.N.; Zaki, W. Imperfections Formation in Thin Layers of NiTi Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Lattices Fabricated Using Laser Powder Bed Fusion. Materials 2022, 15, 7950. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15227950
Hussain S, Alagha AN, Zaki W. Imperfections Formation in Thin Layers of NiTi Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Lattices Fabricated Using Laser Powder Bed Fusion. Materials. 2022; 15(22):7950. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15227950
Chicago/Turabian StyleHussain, Shahadat, Ali N. Alagha, and Wael Zaki. 2022. "Imperfections Formation in Thin Layers of NiTi Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Lattices Fabricated Using Laser Powder Bed Fusion" Materials 15, no. 22: 7950. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15227950