Overview of Electricity Transmission Conductors: Challenges and Remedies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Strengths and Weaknesses of Transmission Conductors
2.1. All Aluminium Transmission Conductors
2.2. HTLS Transmission Conductors
3. Strengths and Defects of Production Techniques Used in Transmission Conductors
3.1. Hot-Rolling
3.2. Extrusion
3.3. Pultrusion
4. Recent Advancements in Production of Composite Systems
4.1. Solid State Production of Composites
4.2. Liquid-State Production of Composites
4.3. Projected Materials for Production of Improved Transmission Conductor
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
- Hot-rolling used in producing some Al and Cu conductors has some defects. Among the defects, scale formation is one of the most devastating defects. So, it is recommended that it can be prevented by ensuring that the scale before rolling should be thinner than the critical thickness of the work piece which is dependent on the rolling temperature. Hence, optimization of the hot-rolling temperature before conducting the actual work is highly recommended.
- Resin additives, rpm of extruder, temperature and pressure sensors applied in extrusion technique should be optimized since the inherent defects emanate from these factors. In addition, fused filament fabrication (FFF) is a better replacement for extrusion. Furthermore, direct ink writing (DIW), which has larger scope than FFF as it can work on thermosets, thermoplastics, metals, ceramics, and cements, should be adopted too.
- To eliminate defects in pultrusion technique, there should be uniformity and slowness of the pulling speed of the machine to avoid cracks, fibre breakages or warped products. Orifice temperature should be maintained at optimal level because it controls the structure of the pultruded product. The polymerization and rheological kinetics of the resin should be regulated by optimizing the quantity of additives and catalysts added.
- In situ method helps improve the purity of the composite and enhance uniform dispersion of the reinforcements. However, it is not yet commercially viable. For this reason, the ex situ processing route should be adopted but dispersion should be improved via high-energy ball-milling, vacuum-sintering or SPS should be used to reduce impurities in the products, and heat treatment is encouraged to reduce pores and enhance grain refinement.
- Solid-state fabrication technique is recommended as it enhances mechanical, thermal, tribological, and corrosion properties of composites. Meanwhile, SPS is recommended as one of the most promising solid-state methods to be adopted in developing TCs. However, it is yet to be developed for producing long-span products such as electricity wires. So, further research on SPS is recommended.
- Liquid production process is more cost effective and simpler than solid production. It is used in producing the most complicated geometries at very fast rate. It accounts for the largest production volume on the globe. Meanwhile, stir-casting is the most versatile, simplest, and most flexible and most applied liquid production in mass production. However, its defects should be ameliorated via double step stir-casting to enhance uniform dispersion of reinforcements, coating of matrix with Cu, Mg, Ca, Li, or Ag to enhance wettability, and optimized stirring speed and temperature to avoid air bubbles and deleterious chemical reaction.
- Projected advanced light-weight composite materials for production of the outer layer of TCs include Al-CNTs, Al-Nb, Al-Ti, and Al-B2. For the inner core, the recommended matrices included Al, Ti, and Zr; while the reinforcing phases include CNTs, BN, SiC, TiC, B4C, and AlN.
- For selection of appropriate HTLS conductors, it is recommended that those in the tropics can adequately select ACCC since there is no or minimal ice load, while those in the temperate region should install ACCR which has more strength to withstand ice and wind loads.
- The suggested techniques, materials, and measures if strictly followed in developing transmission conductors would promote a sustainable steady supply of electricity in the grids, which will fast-track growth and development in the third world countries and sub-Saharan Africa.
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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No. | HTLS | Outer Layer | Core | Strengths | Deficiencies | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | ACSS | Annealed 1350-O Al | Steel | High strength, high operating temperature (250 °C) | High corrosion rate, high density, high CTE | [5,20] |
2 | G-TACSR | Trapezoid Al wire | Steel | High strength, high operating temperature (210 °C) | High corrosion rate, high density, high CTE | [21] |
3 | ACCR | Al-Zr wire | Al2O3 fibre | High strength, high operating temperature (210 °C), low corrosion rate, lower CTE than steel-based | Relatively high CTE | [22,23,24] |
4 | ACCC | Annealed 1350-0 Al | C-epoxy | Very low CTE, low density, average temperature (130 °C) | Low strength | [6,14,25,26] |
5 | Z-TACIR | Annealed Al | Invar (64 steel, 34 Ni) | High operating temperature, high corrosion resistance | Strength lower than steel, high density | [14,20] |
No. | Extrusion Defects | Manifestation on Product | Remedies/Prevention |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Inappropriate installation | Marks on the product | Adjust the die setting; check for alignment |
2 | Inappropriate operation | Irregular wall thickness | Use digital pressure/temperature sensors |
3 | Resin faults | Indentations on the products | Precision in resin addition |
4 | Inappropriate addition of materials | Formation of bubbles | Precision in calculation/addition of materials |
5 | Surging | Irregular thickness of products | Running the extruder gentler or quicker by 10% |
6 | Inadequate mixing | Clogging in the products | Raise the mixing speed back pressure |
7 | Melt fracture | Rough surface | Apply correct additives; keep to the rpm of extruder |
8 | Overheating | Irregular cooling causing warping | Quench the barrel heat except in the rear side; cool the barrel if required |
9 | Moisture release | Pits, long bubbles and dotted lines | Material must be pre-dried; use vent in the extruder |
10 | Trapped air | Dotted lines, pits and bubbles | Shun extruder over speed |
S/N | Production Method | Merits | Demerits | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Spark plasma sintering | (i) Low energy consumption (ii) Refined microstructure (iii) Short sintering time (iv) Low grain growth (v) Improved properties (vi) Purified products | (i) Only simple shapes are produced (ii) Pulsed DC generator is expensive (iii) High cost of equipment | [84,91,92,93] |
2 | Hot isostatic pressing | (i) Removes porosity (ii) Heating and pressing at a single step (iii) Diffusion bonding (iv) Fine grains | (i) Expensive tooling (ii) Lower yield strength (iii) Longer processing time | [94,95,96] |
3 | Cold isostatic pressing | (i) Cheap tooling (ii) Uniform density (iii) High green strength (iv) Hard to press materials | (i) Dimensional inconsistency (ii) Additional machining is costly (iii) Longer processing time | [94,96] |
4 | Diffusion bonding | (i) Similar and dissimilar materials can be joined (ii) Joint formed is pure, clean and devoid of pores (iii) Similar physical and mechanical properties of base materials and produced composite (iv) Reduced plastic deformation | (i) Time consuming (ii) Not suitable for mass production (iii) Set up cost is high | [97,98] |
5 | Vacuum sintering | (i) Highly controllable (ii) Large scale production (iii) Fewer defects (iv) Pure products | (i) High cost of tooling (ii) High cost of raw materials. | [99] |
6 | Microwave sintering | (i) Low energy consumption (ii) high heating rate (iii) Short sintering time (iv) High densification | (i) High initial cost (ii) Large quantity of materials are required | [100] |
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Ujah, C.O.; Kallon, D.V.V.; Aigbodion, V.S. Overview of Electricity Transmission Conductors: Challenges and Remedies. Materials 2022, 15, 8094. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15228094
Ujah CO, Kallon DVV, Aigbodion VS. Overview of Electricity Transmission Conductors: Challenges and Remedies. Materials. 2022; 15(22):8094. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15228094
Chicago/Turabian StyleUjah, Chika Oliver, Daramy Vandi Von Kallon, and Victor Sunday Aigbodion. 2022. "Overview of Electricity Transmission Conductors: Challenges and Remedies" Materials 15, no. 22: 8094. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15228094