Electrical Resistivity Measurements for Nondestructive Evaluation of Chloride-Induced Deterioration of Reinforced Concrete—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
Concrete Specimen Preparation
3. Measurement Techniques
3.1. Two-Point Uniaxial Method
3.2. Four-Point Wenner Probe Method
3.3. Four-Probe Square Array Method
3.4. Electrode–Disc Test Method
3.5. Resistivity Meter through Resistance Measurements
4. Correlation of Electrical Resistivity to Various Factors for Steel Corrosion in Concrete
4.1. Concrete Degree of Saturation
4.2. Chloride Penetration
4.3. Corrosion Rate
5. Other Factors Interfering with the Values of Electrical Resistivity of Concrete
5.1. Effect of Temperature of Concrete
5.2. Effect of Presence of Steel Reinforcements
5.2.1. Effect of Configuration of Electrode (Spacing, Direction, and Orientation)
5.2.2. Effect of Measurement Distance on Embedded Steel
5.2.3. Diameter of Embedded Steel
5.2.4. Effect of Concrete Cover
5.3. Effect of Specimen Geometry
5.4. Presence of Defects in Concrete
5.4.1. Surface-Breaking Cracks
5.4.2. Delamination Defects
5.5. Concrete Composition
6. Discussion of Findings
7. Conclusions
- (1)
- After conducting an extensive literature review, this study was able to review and evaluate the correlation of electrical resistivity (ER) to critical parameters related to the electrochemical processes of steel in concrete, such as degree of water saturation, chloride diffusivity and chloride penetration, corrosion risk, and corrosion rate. It was observed that ER values showed a downward trend as the value of the three critical parameters increased. Therefore, it can be inferred that ER measurements are effective for condition assessment of chloride-induced deterioration in reinforced concrete materials. Furthermore, ER measurements could be used to evaluate the activity of corrosion after the propagation of rust in corroded steel is initiated, though there is a lack of a strong theoretical link between ER and corrosion damage;
- (2)
- However, variations in values are still observed in the relationships reported by different researchers in the literature. The variations are generally attributed to the fact that ER values are affected by various material and environmental parameters that are not really related to the corrosion process of steel in concrete. This study reviewed and summarized the effects of temperature, presence of rebars, delamination defects, presence of cracks, concrete composition, compressive strength, and specimen geometry, among others;
- (3)
- Therefore, it can be concluded that, based on the current studies in the literature, electrical resistivity evaluation is recommendable to be used at a project (or site) level under similar test conditions. Test regions with relatively low ER values can be interpreted as a higher corrosive environment in the initiation period of corrosion and can be further used to estimate corrosion activity and kinetics of steel corrosion in concrete;
- (4)
- It was also recommended that more studies are needed using electrical resistivity (ER) values to compare the conditions of reinforced concrete structures distributed at national-network levels. This research recommended four directions of future research toward the use of ER evaluation as an NDE tool for network-level application: (1) consolidation of the standard test method for electrical resistivity measurements, (2) more systematic studies to investigate the effects of combined parameters on electrical resistivity measurements values, (3) more study to use the ER in the context of combined NDE methods for comprehensive evaluation of chloride-induced deterioration in concrete structures, in which advanced data fusion techniques by machine learning and deep learning models could be useful, and (4) further developing ER data collection methods using advanced smart technologies such as real-time health monitoring technique and robotics-assisted autonomous data measurements, which enable more reliable, consistent, and rapid data collection in large concrete structures in the field.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Reference | Specimen Geometry | Correlation Equation | R2 | Method (ER) | Method (Diffusivity) | Curing Condition | Age | Binder | w/c Ratio |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[67] | Concrete Disk (100 mm dia. 50 mm thick) | y = 69.12x + 0.49 | 0.98 | TEM | RCPT | Lime–water (20 °C) | 3, 7, 14, 28, 90, 365 days | OPC, with other Pozzolanic matls. | 0.35, 0.40, 0.45 |
[68] | Cube (150 mm) | y = 125.22x − 0.54 | 0.86 | - | RCMT | water (20 °C) | 7, 14, 27, 28, 56, 91 days | Cement | 0.40–0.55 |
[69] | Cylinder (100 mm dia. × 200 mm) | y = 106.44x − 1.39 | 0.93 | TEM | RCPT | - | - | - | - |
WPM | |||||||||
[70] | Cube (100 mm) | y = 1333.7x + 1.06 | 0.99 | TEM | RCPT | water (20°C) | 3, 7, 14, 28, 90, 180, 365 days | Fly Ash Cement | 0.40 |
Cylinders | |||||||||
[71] | Cube (100 mm), (100 mm dia. Core cylinders | y = 102.32x + 3.0 | 0.93 | Computed through conductance | RCPT | water (20–25 °C) | Periodically for 4 months | Cement with Nano Silica | 0.50, 0.55, 0.65 |
[72] | Cylinder (100 mm dia. × 200 mm) | y = 26.363x + 0.32 | 0.66 | WPM | RCPT | Lime–water (21 °C) | 28 days | Fly Ash and Slag Cement | 0.41 |
[73] | Cylinder (100 mm dia. × 200 mm) | y = 4.831x + 0.74 | 0.93 | WPM | RCPT, RCMT | Lime–water (23 ± 2 °C), | 28, 91 days | PC with Silica Fume | 0.35, 0.45 |
[74] | Cylinder (100 mm dia. × 200 mm) | y = 134.56x − 0.45 | 0.93 | WPM | RCMT | water (25 °C) | 7,28, 56, 90 days | OPC, OPC with other Materials | 0.25, 0.28, 0.35 |
Cube (100 mm) | |||||||||
[75] | Cylinder (100 mm dia. × 200 mm) | y = 87.167x + 0.95 | 0.60 | TEM, WPM | RCMT | Room and Elevated Temp. (34 °C) | 91–100 days, 365 days, 1.5 years, 2 years, | Cement with Slag and silica Fume | 0.35, 0.41, 0.47 |
[76] | Cylinder (100 mm dia. × 200 mm) | y = 43.673x − 1.95 | 0.73 | WPM | RCMT RCPT | Lime–water (20 ± 3 °C), | 28 days | Cement with Metakaolin | 0.45, 0.60 |
Cube(100 mm) | |||||||||
Cube (150 mm) | |||||||||
[77] | Cylinder (100 mm dia. × 200 mm) | y = 104.62x − 1.49 | 0.68 | WPM | - | - | 2.5 years | with Microsilica | 0.32–0.35 |
[77] | Cube (100 mm) | y = 104.62x − 1.49 | 0.68 | WPM | - | - | 2.5 years | with Microsilica | 0.32–0.35 |
Reference | Specimen Geometry | Regression Equation | (R2) | Measurement Method | Measurement Method (Corrosion Rate) | Curing Condition | Age | Type of Binder | w/c Ratio |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[78] | - | y = 35.831x−0.89 | 0.65 | - | LPR | - | - | - | - |
[79] | Beam (100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm) | y = 0.7262x−0.488 | 0.57 | WPM | LPR | NaCl (5%) curing | 28, 90 days | PC | 0.40, 0.55 |
[80] | cylinder (150 mm dia. × 300 mm) | y = 132.86x−1.062 | 0.66 | WPM | Inverse of ER | - | - | OPC | 0.41 |
[81] | cylinder (15 cm dia. × 22 cm) | y = 200.01x−1.339 | 0.53 | Computed using Resistivity meter | LPR | 1000 days | Cement | 0.40, 0.60 | |
[45] | - | y = 0.4359x−0.807 | 0.64 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
[82] | Slab (133 × 133 × 7 cm) | y = 3.1985x−0.991 | 0.95 | - | LPR | - | - | Cement | 0.50 |
[83] | Slab (160 cm × 140 cm × 10 cm) | y = 114.58x−0.418 | 0.60 | Computed using Galvanostat | LPR | - | - | - | - |
[84] | Prism (65 mm × 100 mm × 300 mm) | y = 26.174x−0.664 | 0.82 | TEM | LPR | NaCl (5%) curing | - | Cement | 0.45 |
[85] | cylinder (75 mm dia. × 150 mm) | y = 10.237x−0.813 | 0.45 | - | LPR | water curing | - | OPC | 0.50 |
[86] | cylinder (150 mm dia. × 300 mm) | y = 2118.1x−2.316 | 0.90 | - | - | NaCl (3.5%) curing | Monthly (for 6 months) | PC | 0.48 |
[87] | - | y = 5.3225x−0.654 | 0.75 | - | - | - | 3, 5, 12 months | PC | 0.50 |
[88] | cylinder (150 mm dia. × 300 mm) | y = 1277.6x−2.208 | 0.90 | - | - | NaCl (3.5%) curing | Monthly (for 1 year) | Portland Cement | 0.48 |
References | Specimen Geometry | Regression Equation | R2 | Measurement Method | Curing Condition | Binder | w/c Ratio |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[89] | 50 mm cube | y = −0.22x + 10.865 | 0.70 | WPM | water (20 °C) | - | 0.55 |
[75] | Cylinder | y = −1.5374x + 89.188 | 0.91 | WPM | water | PC with FA | 0.41 |
[90] | Cylinder | y = −3.8363x + 193.54 | 0.93 | WPM | water | PC with FA | 0.41 |
[91] | 25 × 25 × 100 mm prism | y = −0.9764x + 43.785 | 0.99 | Computed through Resistance Values | - | Normal PC | 0.37, 0.42, 0.47, 0.57 |
[92] | Cylinder (100 mm dia. × 200 mm) | y = −0.2311x + 22.769 | 0.92 | - | - | PC with FA | 0.32–0.53 |
[93] | 100 × 100 × 300 prism | y = −7.4731x + 197.83 | 0.94 | - | - | OPC | 0.45, 0.65 |
Reference | Specimen Geometry | Regression Equation | R2 | Measurement Method | Curing Condition | Age | Binder | w/c Ratio |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[94] | y = 2.5696x + 11.1 | 0.79 | - | water (23 ± 2 °C) | 7, 28 days | OPC | 0.55 | |
[95] | Slab/beam/cylindrical sample | y = 1.5703x + 1.85 | 0.99 | WPM | water | - | PC | 0.40, 0.45, 0.50 |
[51] | cylinder (100 mm dia. × 200 mm) | y = 3.5339x − 54.48 | 0.63 | WPM | - | 28 days | PC with admixtures | 0.32–0.72 |
[96] | 150 mm cube | y = 1.0042x − 12.46 | 0.98 | WPM | - | 3, 7, 28 days | OPC, some samples with silica fume | 0.5 |
[97] | cylinder (100 mm dia. × 200 mm) | y = 0.5655x − 0.85 | 0.95 | WPM | water (23 ± 2 °C) | 28 days | PC | 0.42, 0.48, 0.54, 0.60 |
[98] | 100 mm cube | y = 0.257x + 11.10 | 0.8 | - | - | 3, 7, 28 days | PC with slag | 0.55 |
[93] | cylinder (100 mm dia. × 200 mm) | y = 0.4996x + 4.78 | 0.75 | WPM | - | 28 days | PC with limestone | - |
[99] | cylinder (100 mm dia. × 200 mm) | y = 0.3447x − 1.05 | 0.97 | WPM | water (23 ± 2 °C) | 3, 7, 28 days | PC | 0.42, 0.48, 0.54, 0.60 |
[100] | cylinder, prism | y = 0.1444x + 18.68 | 0.92 | WPM | - | 7, 14, 28, 56 days | Different Cement type | 0.44 |
[76] | Cubes and Cylinders | y = 0.4778x + 4.72 | 0.99 | WPM | water (20 ± 3 °C) | 7, 14, 28, 90, 180 days | Cement with admixtures | 0.45, 0.60 |
Chloride Penetration Levels According to Electrical Resistivity of Concrete [KΩ CM] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
References: | Very High | High | Moderate | Low | Very Low | Negligible |
[52,104,129,130] | – | <12 | 12–31 | 21–37 | 37–254 | >254 |
[131] | – | <7 | 7–13 | 13–24.3 | 24.3–191 | >191 |
[62] | – | <6.7 | 6.7–11.7 | 11.7–20.6 | 20.6–141.1 | >141.1 |
[132] | – | <16 | 16–28 | 28–50 | 50–343 | >343 |
[101] | – | <5 | 5–10 | 10–20 | 20–200 | >200 |
[133] | <5 | 5–7.5 | 7.5–15 | 15–35 | >35 | – |
Corrosion Risk Level | Corrosion Rate [μAcm−2] |
---|---|
Passive/very low | <0.2 |
Low/moderate | 0.2–0.5 |
Moderate/high | 0.5–1.0 |
Very high | >1.0 |
Corrosion Risk According to Electrical Resistivity of Concrete (kΩ⋅cm) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
References | High | Moderate | Low | Negligible |
[58,154,158] | <10 | 10–50 | 50–100 | >100 |
[155,156] | <5 | 5–10 | 10–20 | >20 |
[104,157] | ≤10 | 10–50 | 50–100 | ≥100 |
Parameter | Relationship to ER | Research Gap |
---|---|---|
Degree of Saturation | Inversely proportional to ER values |
|
Chloride Ion Penetration | Inversely proportional to ER values in a linear scale |
|
Corrosion Rate | Inversely proportional to ER values in a logarithmic scale |
|
Temperature | Inversely proportional to ER values in both linear and exponential scale |
|
Presence of Steel Reinforcement, Electrode Spacing and Configuration, Presence of Cracks, and Presence of Delamination Defects | Variations in ER values are observed with respect to the mentioned parameters |
|
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Robles, K.P.V.; Yee, J.-J.; Kee, S.-H. Electrical Resistivity Measurements for Nondestructive Evaluation of Chloride-Induced Deterioration of Reinforced Concrete—A Review. Materials 2022, 15, 2725. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15082725
Robles KPV, Yee J-J, Kee S-H. Electrical Resistivity Measurements for Nondestructive Evaluation of Chloride-Induced Deterioration of Reinforced Concrete—A Review. Materials. 2022; 15(8):2725. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15082725
Chicago/Turabian StyleRobles, Kevin Paolo V., Jurng-Jae Yee, and Seong-Hoon Kee. 2022. "Electrical Resistivity Measurements for Nondestructive Evaluation of Chloride-Induced Deterioration of Reinforced Concrete—A Review" Materials 15, no. 8: 2725. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15082725