Adding Value to Secondary Aluminum Casting Alloys: A Review on Trends and Achievements
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
- Section 3—Aluminum Recycling Process: The primary focus of this section is to both comprehend the recycling cycle that generates the SAA casting alloys and highlight the key factors in each phase that may cause an alloy to deteriorate in quality and properties.
- Section 4—Aluminum Downcycling: This section emphasizes how the downgrade of aluminum fits into the three major downcycling aspects: functional, thermodynamic, and economic.
- Section 5—The Microstructure and Mechanical Performance of SAAs: Since the microstructure and mechanical properties of commercially used alloys have a close relationship to the alloy quality loss, this section describes the typical microstructure, chemical composition, and mechanical properties of some of the most used SAA alloys.
- Section 6—Valorization of SAAs: This section mainly focuses on strategies that attempt to lessen the effects of Fe-rich phases by modifying their phase and/or morphologies out of all the reported breakthroughs in techniques to add value to the SAA alloys. Emphasis is also placed on techniques that are simple to include into the often-utilized component manufacture cycles, such melt treatment or heat treatment.
3. Aluminum Recycling Process
3.1. Collection and Sorting
3.2. Remelting
3.3. Refining
4. Aluminum Downcycling
4.1. Functional Downcycling
Fe Contamination
4.2. Thermodynamic Downcycling
4.3. Economic Downcycling
4.4. Prospects for Al Downcycling
5. The Microstructure and Mechanical Performance of SAAs
6. Valorization of SAAs
6.1. New Aluminum Alloy Systems
Element | Alloy | Fe (wt.%) | Mn/Fe | Observations | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Be | AlSi7Mg0.3 | Up to 0.7 | ~0.02 | A small addition (500 ppm) of Be provoked the transformation of π into the β phase. Even though Be could avoid the effects of Fe phases on Al alloys, the researchers did not promote the use of these additions due to the toxic nature of Be. | [68,69] |
Co | AlSi7Mg0.3 | Up to 1.0 | - | It was shown that Co/Fe ratios between 1 and 2 are ideal for intermetallic compounds with a Chinese-script shape. | [70] |
Cr | AlSi3Mg0.6 | 0.1 | ~1.0 | The addition of Cr and Mn provoked the intermetallic phase shape to modify the needle-like morphology of the β and π phase to a more rounded α phase. | [71] |
AlSi7Mg0.3 | 1.7 | 0.3 | High Cr additions caused the β phase to become very long and thick, without significantly improving the mechanical properties of the alloy. | [72] | |
AlSi9Cu3 | 0.8 | 0.6 | Cr addition up to 0.12 wt.% alongside a high cooling rate from HPDC caused the formation of α-Alx(Fe,Mn,Cr)ySiz. The Fe-rich intermetallic compounds’ volume fraction and size increased as the Cr content increased. | [73] | |
AlSi9Cu3 | 4.0 | ~0.1 | A greater quantity of cubic α phase made up of several small particles results with the addition of Cr. Cr concentration gradients occurred in the cubic α phase with the Al13Cr4Si4 phase at the center of the particles. | [74] | |
AlSi20 | 5.0 | - | High quantities of Cr additions (5%) achieved hardness above 200 HVN. This is due to Al3FeSi2 transforming to a more complex dendritic-shaped σ-CrFe compound. | [75] | |
Li | AlSi7Mg0.3 | 0.1 | 0.5 | Li additions improved the hardness of the alloy due to the precipitation of AlLiSi phases in the Al matrix (HV increased between 10 and 25 depending on the cooling rate). However, other phases, such as β, occurred as the base alloy. | [76] |
Mo | AlSi6Cu3 | 0.3 and 0.7 | - | In the alloys with low Fe content, it was possible to avoid β-phase precipitation with only 0.24% Mo addition. Moreover, in the high-Fe alloy, adding 0.41% was needed suppress the β-phase formation. | [77] |
AlSi6Cu3 | 0.7 | 0.4 | Due to the lower solubility of Mo in Al, it was easier to form Al-Mo intermetallic than when adding Mn. Thus, Mn and Mo additions combined could achieve a better modification of the β phase. | [77] | |
Ni | AlSi7Mg0.3 | 1.3 | 0.07 | Ni additions did not modify the β-phase morphology, without having any significant effect on tensile properties. | [78] |
AlSi6Cu4 | 0.8 | 0.7 | Ni addition thickened not only the needed-like β phase but also the α phase. | [67] | |
Ti | AlSi20 | 5.0 | - | With the addition of Ti, the significant Fe phase was the Al3FeSi2 with a plaque morphology. Additions of around 1 wt.% Ti formed Ti5Si3 during the acicular phase. While additions above 5 wt.% caused the segregation of eutectic Si around this binary intermetallic, the hardness increased from 106 to 144 HV. | [75] |
Zn | AlSi9Cu3Mg0.3 | 0.2 | - | The Zn addition with the Sr eutectic modification helped to modify the morphology of the Fe-rich phases. The particle size was also reduced by almost half. With 0.58% Zn additions, thin and long β phases were still detected. The tensile properties of UTS and elongation were improved, but not YS. | [79] |
Rare Earth Element Microalloying
6.2. Ultrasonic Melt Treatment
6.3. Heat Treatment
6.4. Achivements and Future Challenges
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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θ-AlFe(Si) | α-AlFeSi | β-AlFeSi | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Si | Fe | Si | Fe | Si | Fe | |
Non-equilibrium (as-cast state) | 1–6 | 35–42 | 6–13 | 31–35 | 13–16 | 25–29 |
Equilibrium (heat-treated at 600 °C) | 1–5 | 36–41 | 6–9.5 | 32–36 | 14–16 | 27–28 |
Example formula | Al3Fe or Al13Fe4 | Al8Fe2Si | Al5FeSi |
Alloy | Al | Si | Mg | Cu | Fe | Mn | Cr | Ti | Zn | Others |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AlSi7Mg0.3(Fe) 356.0 | 90–93 | 6.5–7.5 | 0.2–0.45 | <0.25 | <0.6 | <0.35 | - | <0.25 | <0.35 | <0.15 |
AlSi9Cu(Fe) A308 | 80–90 | 8–11 | 0.05–0.55 | 2–4 | <1.3 | <0.55 | <0.15 | <0.25 | <1.2 | Ni, Pb, Si, Sn |
AlSi12 413.0 | 82–89 | 11–13 | <0.1 | <1 | <2 | <0.35 | - | - | <0.5 | <0.25 |
AlZn3Mg1(Fe) 705.0 | 92–95 | <0.2 | 1.4–1.8 | <0.2 | <0.8 | 0.4–0.6 | 0.2–0.4 | <0.25 | 2.7–3.3 | <0.15 |
Alloy | Class | Process | Fe (wt.%) | UTS (MPa) | YS (MPa) | A (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AlSi7Mg0.3 | NP EN 1706 | Gravity | <0.15 | min. 170 | min. 90 | min. 2.5 | [60] |
Primary alloy | LPDC | ~0.1 | 304 ± 8 | 229 ± 8 | 11 ± 3 | [61] | |
Gravity | 0.09 | 186 | 80 | 8 | [52] | ||
Secondary alloy | Gravity | 0.2 | 151 | 69 | 5 | ||
0.33 | 167 | 75 | 6 | ||||
AlSi9Cu3(Fe) | NP EN 1706 | HPDC | 0.6–1.1 | min. 240 | min. 140 | min. 1 | [60] |
Secondary alloy | HPDC | 0.8 | 323 | 252 | 3.8 | [62] | |
0.8 | ~200 | 152 | 1 | [63] | |||
1.1 | 262 ± 3 | 158 ± 4 | 2 ± 0.1 | [64] |
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Nunes, H.; Emadinia, O.; Soares, R.; Vieira, M.F.; Reis, A. Adding Value to Secondary Aluminum Casting Alloys: A Review on Trends and Achievements. Materials 2023, 16, 895. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16030895
Nunes H, Emadinia O, Soares R, Vieira MF, Reis A. Adding Value to Secondary Aluminum Casting Alloys: A Review on Trends and Achievements. Materials. 2023; 16(3):895. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16030895
Chicago/Turabian StyleNunes, Helder, Omid Emadinia, Rui Soares, Manuel F. Vieira, and Ana Reis. 2023. "Adding Value to Secondary Aluminum Casting Alloys: A Review on Trends and Achievements" Materials 16, no. 3: 895. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16030895