1. Introduction
Coil springs are the most commonly used spring link in mechanical engineering. They are an essential element in the suspension of rail vehicles, motor vehicles, support systems for vibrating machinery, and are found in position-change mechanisms, return-locking mechanisms, valves, mechanical seals, and many other applications [
1,
2,
3,
4]. In systems with high-cycle alternating loads, compression springs are used, while tension springs are avoided. This is due to the shot-blasting capability of compression springs. This treatment significantly increases the fatigue strength of the spring wire. For instance, based on EN 13906-1 [
5], the torsional fatigue strength of a patented spring wire, 10 mm in diameter, made in accordance with EN 10270-1 [
6] after shot-blasting is approximately 410 MPa, whereas without shot-blasting treatment, this strength is only 320 MPa. Hora and Leidenroth [
7] and Berger and Kaiser [
8] even state that the surface condition of the spring wire has a much greater influence on its fatigue strength than its material properties. Tension springs cannot be effectively shot-blasted due to the adhesion of adjacent coils in the unstressed state, while if the wire breaks, the system completely loses integrity. In addition, as shown in the paper [
9], the maximum stress in hooks of such springs can achieve high values. For these reasons, even in systems with tensile forces, compression springs with appropriate intermediate elements are used for responsible devices.
The most common industrially used compression springs are made of wire with a round cross-section [
10,
11], which provides the most efficient use of material due to the tangential stress distribution caused by wire torsion. However, there are a number of applications where springs with a rectangular wire cross-section are preferable. Springs with a rectangular wire cross-section have a high energy storage capacity, high stiffness, and a small size, so they are applicable in the automotive industry [
12], in automotive vehicle suspensions [
13], and are also commonly used in stamping machines [
14]. These springs are also applied as prone couplings and as flexible connectors in manipulators, including surgical robots [
15]. The favourable characteristics of rectangular wire springs have led to attempts to make them using 3D printing technology [
16] and to make them from composites [
17,
18].
Springs with a rectangular wire cross-section can be made by coiling from wire or by cavity machining. Rectangular wire is most commonly used to coil these springs. When coiling a helix from a wire with a rectangular cross-section, the wire usually adopts a near-trapezoidal shape, which reduces the space efficiency and energy storage capacity of the spring [
19]. Tsubouchi et al. [
20] proposed a new technology involving the coiling of a round wire spring, which is then subjected to presetting. During the presetting process, adjacent coils of the spring are interlocked. This process is then continued, resulting in plastic deformation of the wire caused by high pressures between the pressed coils, the cross-section of which takes the shape of a rectangle with two rounded sides. The authors of the cited paper indicate that this treatment increases the fatigue strength of the spring. However, this leads to a spring with less axial stiffness due to a reduction in the original axial moment of inertia of the wire cross-section.
3D printing, electro-discharge machining, laser machining, or milling technologies make it possible to produce springs with a much wider range of geometrical parameters than spring coil technology. In addition, these springs can be made from a much wider spectrum of materials, including spring-brittle materials, than with coiling technology. A significant advantage of machining is the possibility to produce springs with a very small spring index
C, i.e., the quotient of the nominal spring diameter
D to the wire thickness measured in the radial direction
b. A relatively new design of machined spring is a closed-end coil spring made from a cylinder. A drawing of such a spring with the main geometrical parameters is shown in
Figure 1a.
Figure 1b illustrates an example of such a spring. As can be seen, the end parts of the spring can be shaped to facilitate assembly, which significantly increases the application possibilities. The spring can thus be used in compression, tension, bending, and torsion.
In the literature, relationships can be found to calculate the maximum stresses developed in the spring material under axial loading [
13,
21]. However, they do not take into account effects related to the way the coils of machined springs are terminated, such as those shown in
Figure 1. Moreover, these relations are derived on the basis of simplifying assumptions, and no comprehensive analysis of their accuracy for a wide range of parameter variations is presented anywhere, even for classical coil springs made of rectangular wire. An important geometrical parameter for springs of this type is the radius
ρ of the rounded end of the coil, shown in
Figure 1a. If it is too small, it will cause an increase in stress in the spring material during operation and, as a result, reduce the static and fatigue strength of such a spring. The value of this radius also affects the stiffness of the spring, especially for springs with a small number of coils. Using a rounding radius larger than necessary for stress reduction results in a spring with increased dimensions and reduced stiffness. The reason for this is that, in order to provide stable support for the spring, its retaining surfaces should be in the form of solid rings. This compromises the spring’s performance properties due to, among other things, increased weight and required installation space. The lack of a model to determine the correct value of this radius makes it difficult to correctly select parameters when selecting or designing such a spring.
The aim of this study was to provide a comprehensive analysis of the stresses in the material of a machined coil spring with closed-coil ends. This analysis was carried out using numerical methods for a wide range of variations in the geometrical parameters of the springs. The first objective of this analysis was to determine the minimum value of the rounding radius ρmin, ensuring that there is no stress concentration at the ends of the coils. The second objective of the analysis was to develop an easy-to-use computational model to estimate the value of the rounding radius ρmin for machined springs with arbitrary geometric parameters within the assumed range of variation. This analysis and the developed computational model will allow the springs to be designed with efficient use of material and the application of relationships known from the literature for their calculation, which neglect the effects associated with the geometry of the transition zone of the end coils.
4. Discussion on the Accuracy of the Developed Computational Model
The results obtained with the proposed computational model, described by Equations (2) and (3) and the coefficients shown in
Table 7, were compared with the results of the FEM-based analyses and presented graphically in
Figure 9,
Figure 10 and
Figure 11.
Comparing the differences between the
values obtained from the FEM-based analyses and the
values obtained with the proposed computational model, it can be seen that the proposed model has a high agreement with the input data, over a wide range of variation in the parameters
C,
,
α, and
n. It can also be seen that for springs with small values of
, the proposed model generally overestimates the values of this parameter, which is beneficial for the safety of the calculations. The largest differences between the results of the FEM-based analyses and the results of the developed model occur at large values of the helix angle
α and the aspect ratio
. However, the relative differences in these cases are small. For example, for a spring with
n = 1.5,
C = 10,
= 5/1 and
α = 15°, the difference in the
value between the result of the FEM-based analyses and the developed model was 0.8. For a spring with these parameters, the
value obtained from the FEM-based analyses was 9 (
Table 2), so the relative difference did not exceed 9% in this case. The lowest value of the coefficient of determination
R2 was obtained for springs with the spring index
C = 2.5 and the number of coils
n = 2.5 and
n = 3.5. The values of the coefficient of determination
R2 for these springs were 0.92. In all other cases, the values of the coefficient of determination
R2 exceeded 0.95 and in four cases it was 0.99.
In order to validate the developed computational model, a number of additional FEM-based analyses were carried out for springs with the spring index
C = 7.5 and the number of coils
n = 1.5. A comparison of the
values obtained from the FEM-based analyses (red dots) with the course of the function described in Equation (2) is presented in
Figure 12.
It can be seen that the results obtained are in good agreement, which is confirmed by the coefficient of determination R2 value of 0.96.
Table 8 summarises the three extreme values of the absolute differences
that were observed between the results of the FEM-based analyses and the results of the proposed computational model. This table also shows the relative differences
. The values of the radius of roundness of the transition zone obtained from the FEM-based analyses are denoted as
, and those obtained from the developed approximation model are denoted as
.
As can be seen, even for the largest observed absolute differences between the results of the FEM-based analyses and the results of the approximation model, the relative differences did not exceed 20% in the worst case.
5. Conclusions
This paper presents a new computational model to estimate the geometrical parameters of the transition zones of helical springs with rectangular wire cross-section and closed-end coils, ensuring that the maximum stresses in these zones are reduced to a level corresponding to the stresses in the coils. The model is an approximation and is based on results from more than 350 large deflection FEM-based analyses. The validity of the results of the numerical analyses with respect to stresses was checked using literature data.
The model proposed in this paper, described by Equations (2) and (3) and the data in
Table 7, is characterised by a simple formulation and high agreement with the results of FEM-based analyses over a wide range of spring geometric parameters. It is, to the authors’ knowledge, the first such model in the literature to allow the estimation of the minimum radius of the groove rounding in the transition zone of a helical coil spring with a rectangular wire cross-section, for which the stress coefficient factor is 1. This model therefore allows efficient use of the spring material and the space required for its assembly. An additional advantage of the proposed model is that it can be used to calculate springs with wire cross-sectional ratios
b/
a both greater and less than one.
The proposed computational model shows good agreement with the results of the FEM-based analyses even in areas with a strongly non-linear relationship between values and the other parameters of the analysed springs. In these areas, especially for springs with a small number of coils, in a few cases, large absolute differences were observed between the results, which, however, did not exceed 20% in relation to the values of obtained from the FEM-based analyses.
The model can be used for springs with an index between 2.5 and 10, a helix angle between 1° and 15°, and a proportion of the sides of the wire section between 1/2.5 and 5/1. It was developed for the number of coils n between 1.5 and 4.5, but in the case of springs with a higher number of coils, the value n = 4.5 can be inserted in Equation (3) because, as analyses have shown, at this number of coils, the values of stabilise.
Additional analyses carried out during the development of this article, which are not presented here due to their excessive volume, indicated that the stiffness of the analysed springs may differ significantly from the stiffnesses calculated based on the known literature relationships [
13,
19,
21]. This justifies the need to carry out research in this area as well. This research has commenced and will be the subject of a subsequent article.