Analytical Review of the Current State of Technology, Structure Formation, and Properties of Variatropic Centrifugally Compacted Concrete
Abstract
:1. Introduction—General Picture of the Current State of Variatropic Concrete
- (1)
- a review was carried out on a wide range of world research, based on the best existing world practices and scientific achievements in the field of variatropic concrete;
- (2)
- the major formulation, constructive, technological, engineering, and scientific approaches to solving the problems of the best and most environmentally and economically efficient variatropic concretes for a wide variety of types of climatic zones, regions, buildings, structures, and various levels of their responsibility were identified;
- (3)
- the key factors and major criteria influencing the properties and efficiency of variatropic concrete were identified;
- (4)
- the main fundamental relationships between the composition, structure, and properties of variatropic concrete were determined;
- (5)
- the relationship was identified at both the micro and macro levels in the structure’s formation and properties of variatropic concrete;
- (6)
- the performance of variatropic concrete in structures was assessed and the main areas of use of such structures were identified;
- (7)
- a generalized analysis and discussion of the current state, assessment of prospects, and identification of specific vectors for the development of the market for variatropic concrete in global construction and production was carried out.
2. Types of Centrifugal Machines for Producing Variatropic Concrete
3. Theoretical Rationale for the Formation of a Variatropic Structure of Centrifuged Concrete
4. Main Performance and Defect Characteristics of Variatropic Concrete
4.1. Properties of Variatropic Concrete
4.2. Features of the Microstructure of Variatropic Concretes
5. Structures Using Variatropic Concrete
6. Discussion
7. Conclusions
- (1)
- Variatropic concrete is a promising building material due to the peculiarities of changing its physical and mechanical properties within the cross-section.
- (2)
- The phenomenon of variatropy, which occurs due to the use of a centrifugal method of compacting a concrete mixture, helps to improve the physical and mechanical characteristics of concrete in comparison with traditional concrete, produced using vibration technology. Variatropic concrete has improvevd mechanical characteristics compared to traditional concrete, on average by up to 45%. The combination of centrifugal and vibration compaction methods in one technology, that is, the use of so-called vibrocentrifugation, helps to obtain an improved variatropic concrete structure that has better characteristics in comparison with variatropic centrifuged concrete, on average by up to 20%. This structure, in comparison with the variatropic structure obtained via centrifugation, is characterized by a greater strength of the outer and middle layers of the annular section.
- (3)
- The advantages of the variatropic structures of centrifuged concrete due to the protection of a denser outer layer from moisture penetration, compared to a conventional concrete structure are noted and explained. This effect is observed to a greater extent in variatropic vibrocentrifuged concrete, which allows for the controlling of the capillary porosity of concrete and its nature, as well as strengthening the outer layer and pulling the values of the middle layer to the values of the outer one, resulting in a double layer of protection from additional moisture; the capillaries are even more reliable when protected from internal stresses and destruction of concrete when exposed to aggressive factors.
- (4)
- The durability of concrete with a variatropic structure, characterized by the porosity of the outer surface, its water absorption, resistance to the penetration of chloride ions, alternating cycles of freezing and thawing, as well as cycles of moistening and drying, is, all other things being equal, higher than that of concrete of a conventional structure. The durability of variatropic concrete is improved by up to 30% compared to conventional concrete.
- (5)
- Vibration centrifugation technology is proposed for implementation in structures operating in special conditions with an increased risk of sulfate corrosion in concrete and reinforced concrete.
- (6)
- The first studies on the topic of variatropic concrete were aimed at obtaining new data on the influence of the ratios of mixture components and centrifugation parameters on the strength and physical–mechanical properties of the final material. Modern research uses new ideas and technologies and needs further, more detailed study.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reference | Manufacturing Technology | Main Focus of the Study |
---|---|---|
[26,27] | Centrifugation Vibration centrifugation | Impact of component activation |
[16,19,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56] | Centrifugation | Mechanical properties |
[11,13] | Centrifugation Vibration centrifugation | Effect of freeze–thaw cycles |
[12] | Centrifugation Vibration centrifugation | Effect of exposure to sulfate attack |
[57] | Centrifugation | Deterrence effect research |
[58] | Centrifugation | Effect of corrosion |
[59,60] | Centrifugation | Influence of salt attack and temperature factors |
[61,62,63] | Centrifugation | Effect of fiber reinforcement |
[64] | Centrifugation | Work of structures |
[65] | Centrifugation | Creep research |
[66] | Centrifugation | Modeling and calculation |
[14] | Centrifugation | Economic and environmental impact |
[67] | Centrifugation | Impact on global warming potential |
[15,17,68,69] | Centrifugation Vibration centrifugation | Mechanical properties |
[70,71] | Centrifugation | Microstructure analysis methods |
[18] | Centrifugation Vibration centrifugation | Effect of chloride attack |
[72] | Centrifugation Vibration centrifugation | Influence of nano modifiers |
Reference | Type of Variatropic Concrete under Study | Modulus of Elasticity, GPa | Compressive Strength, MPa | Axial Tensile Strength, MPa |
---|---|---|---|---|
[26] | Centrifuged Vibrocentrifuged | 35.9 40.1 | 54.9 60.3 | 4.3 4.8 |
[34] | Centrifuged | – | 30.0–50.0 | – |
[12] | Centrifuged Vibrocentrifuged | – | 47.3 50.8 | – |
[57] | Centrifuged | 30 | 20.0 | 1.5 |
[58] | Centrifuged | – | 53.0 | – |
[59] | Centrifuged | – | 49.1 | – |
[13] | Centrifuged Vibrocentrifuged | – | 51.0 54.1 | – |
[60] | Centrifuged | 40.8 | 57.2 | – |
[66] | Centrifuged | 43.5 | 38.7 | 3.87 |
[62] | Centrifuged | – | 32.6 | 3.21 |
[15] | Centrifuged Vibrocentrifuged | 39.9 42.9 | 62.5 70.7 | 4.6 5.3 |
[16] | Centrifuged Vibrocentrifuged | 34.3 38.8 | 43.4 68.2 | – |
[17] | Centrifuged Vibrocentrifuged | 32.8 33.9 | 45.7 49.9 | 5.9 6.4 |
[37] | Vibrocentrifuged | 28.2 | 38.2 | 2.7 |
[69] | Centrifuged Vibrocentrifuged | – | 43.1 44.7 | – |
Reference | Type of Factor Taken into Account in the Work | Name of the Influencing Factor | The Influence of the Factor under Consideration on the Formation of Cement Gel and the Microstructure of Hardened Cement Paste |
---|---|---|---|
[78] | Prescription (use of nanomodifying additive) | nano-SiO2 | The addition of nanosilica helps to increase the degree of hydration of the cement paste and increase the active formation of the calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) gel, as well as to reduce the overall porosity of the hardened cement paste |
[79,80] | Prescription (use of additive as a replacement for part of the cement) | bottom ash from power plants | Cement pastes with added bottom ash contain more CSH than cement pastes without the additive. |
[81] | Prescription (use of additive as a replacement for part of the cement) | low calcium fly ash | The loose and porous microstructure of fly ash results in higher water consumption, which reduces the fluidity of cement-based pastes. The main hydration products of cement-based materials mixed with LCFA were AFt, CSH gel, and Ca(OH)2 |
[82,83] | Prescription (use of additive as a replacement for part of the cement) | belite cement and fly ash | Hydration of belite cement from fly ash promotes the formation of CSH, ettringite, and calcium hydroxide gel, thereby significantly increasing long-term strength and also reducing the porosity of the hardened cement paste |
[84] | Prescription (use of nanomodifying additive) | carbon nanofibers | Carbon nanofibers fill nanopores and connect grains of CSH, while nanofibers influence the probability distribution function of the local packing density, causing a shift towards higher values |
[73,85] | Prescription | radioisolators Bi2O3 and ZrO2 | Radiocontrast agents help increase the average length of the silicate chain and the degree of aluminum substitution in the CSH gel |
[85,86] | (additive use) | titanium nanoparticles | TiO2 nanoparticles promote compaction of cement paste and, as a result, increase strength |
[87,88] | Prescription (use of nanomodifying additive) | carbon nanotubes, nanosilica | Nanosilica absorbs on the surface of carbon nanotubes and promotes the formation of hydration products on their surface, which improves adhesion between carbon nanotubes and the cement matrix |
[85,88,89] | Prescription (use of nanomodifying additive) | carbon nanotubes | Carbon nanotubes form strong interfacial bonds with cementitious matrices and also increase the proportion of high-density calcium silicate hydrate (HD-CSH) gel compared to low-density CSH gel |
[90] | Prescription (use of nanomodifying additive) | calcium sulfoaluminate cement and gypsum | It is noted that the gel transition time decreases with increasing amounts of calcium sulfoaluminate and gypsum additions |
[91] | Prescription (supplement use) | coal gangue and slag powder | The resulting three types of binder gels are characterized by a dense structure and high strength |
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Shcherban’, E.M.; Stel’makh, S.A.; Mailyan, L.R.; Beskopylny, A.N.; Smolyanichenko, A.S.; Chernil’nik, A.; Elshaeva, D.; Beskopylny, N. Analytical Review of the Current State of Technology, Structure Formation, and Properties of Variatropic Centrifugally Compacted Concrete. Materials 2024, 17, 1889. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17081889
Shcherban’ EM, Stel’makh SA, Mailyan LR, Beskopylny AN, Smolyanichenko AS, Chernil’nik A, Elshaeva D, Beskopylny N. Analytical Review of the Current State of Technology, Structure Formation, and Properties of Variatropic Centrifugally Compacted Concrete. Materials. 2024; 17(8):1889. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17081889
Chicago/Turabian StyleShcherban’, Evgenii M., Sergey A. Stel’makh, Levon R. Mailyan, Alexey N. Beskopylny, Alla S. Smolyanichenko, Andrei Chernil’nik, Diana Elshaeva, and Nikita Beskopylny. 2024. "Analytical Review of the Current State of Technology, Structure Formation, and Properties of Variatropic Centrifugally Compacted Concrete" Materials 17, no. 8: 1889. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17081889