Effect of Modified and Unmodified Oak Bark (Quercus Cortex) on the Cross-Linking Process and Mechanical, Anti-Aging, and Hydrophobic Properties of Biocomposites Produced from Natural Rubber (NR)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
- -
- sulfur (S8) as a cross-linking agent with a density of 1.8–2.36 g/cm3, supplied by Chempur (Piekary Śląskie, Poland),
- -
- zinc oxide (ZnO) as a cross-linking activator with a density of 5.6 g/cm3, obtained from Chempur (Piekary Śląskie, Poland),
- -
- 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) as a cross-linking accelerator with a density of 1.29 g/cm3, delivered from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA),
- -
- stearic acid (SA), functioning as a cross-linking activator and dispersing agent with a density of 0.94 g/cm3, obtained from Chempur (Piekary Śląskie, Poland).
- -
- toluene with a density of 0.87 g/cm3, delivered by POCh S.A. (Gliwice, Poland),
- -
- diethyl ether with a density of 0.71 g/cm3, obtained from Chempur (Piekary Śląskie, Poland).
2.2. Compounding and Vulcanization
2.3. Assessment of the Cross-Linking Process
2.4. Determination of Surface Morphology
2.5. Determination of Mechanical Properties
2.6. Resistance to Thermo-Oxidative Aging
2.7. Determination of Hydrophobicity
2.8. Spectra Making with the FT-IR Method
2.9. Statistical Analysis
3. Research Results and Their Discussion
3.1. Analysis of the Morphology of Oak Bark and NR Vulcanizates Filled with Oak Bark
3.2. Analysis of the Structure of NR Vulcanizates Filled with Oak Bark
3.3. The Influence of Oak Bark on the Course of NR Cross-Linking
3.4. The Influence of Oak Bark on the Mechanical Properties of NR Vulcanizates
3.5. The Influence of Oak Bark on the Hydrophobicity of NR Vulcanizates
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Ingredient | Ingredient Amount (phr) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NR | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
S8 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
ZnO | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
SA | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
MBT | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 |
OB | - | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 |
N-OTMS | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.5 | 1 | 1.5 | 2 | 2.5 |
Composite symbol | NR0 | NR5 | NR10 | NR15 | NR20 | NR25 | NR5S | NR10S | NR15S | NR20S | NR25S |
Wavenumber (cm−1) | Band Intensity | Chemical Group | Composite | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
NR | NR20 | NR20S | |||
2958 | Medium | C-H in -CH3 | + | + | + |
2916 | Intensive, sharp | C-H in -CH3 and -CH2- | + | + | + |
2848 | Medium | C-H in -CH3 and -CH2- | + | + | + |
1680–1596 | Weak, broad | >C=C< | + | + | + |
1538 | Medium, sharp | >C=C< | + | + | + |
1454–1428 | Medium doublet | Si-CH3 | − | − | + |
1444 | Intensive, sharp | C-H in -CH3 and -CH2- | + | + | + |
1375 | Medium | C-H in -CH3 | + | + | + |
1275 | Weak, sharp | Si-CH2 | − | − | + |
1242 | Weak | C-C in CH3 | + | + | + |
1126 | Weak | C-C in CH3 | + | + | + |
1080 | Weak | C-H in -CH2- | + | + | + |
1020–1005 | Intensive, sharp | Si-O | − | − | + |
840 | Intensive | >C=C< | + | + | + |
765 | Intensive, sharp | C-Si-C | − | − | + |
700–660 | Medium doublet | Si in C-Si-C | − | − | + |
NR Sample | Properties | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tmin (dNm) | Tmax (dNm) | T20 (dNm) | ∆TR (dNm) | t02 (min) | t90 (min) | CRI (min−1) | |
NR0 | 0.16 | 3.99 | 3.35 | 0.64 | 1.30 | 2.49 | 84.03 |
NR5 | 0.11 | 3.87 | 3.34 | 0.53 | 1.40 | 2.74 | 74.63 |
NR10 | 0.07 | 3.98 | 3.46 | 0.52 | 1.30 | 2.55 | 80.00 |
NR15 | 0.13 | 3.84 | 3.31 | 0.53 | 1.62 | 3.21 | 62.89 |
NR20 | 0.11 | 4.31 | 3.79 | 0.52 | 1.47 | 3.03 | 64.10 |
NR25 | 0.09 | 4.41 | 3.90 | 0.51 | 1.44 | 3.04 | 62.50 |
NR5S | 0.14 | 3.47 | 2.94 | 0.53 | 1.62 | 2.78 | 86.21 |
NR10S | 0.24 | 3.74 | 3.11 | 0.63 | 1.44 | 2.68 | 80.64 |
NR15S | 0.13 | 3.73 | 3.18 | 0.55 | 1.52 | 2.84 | 75.76 |
NR20S | 0.11 | 3.81 | 3.23 | 0.58 | 1.52 | 2.98 | 68.49 |
NR25S | 0.16 | 3.95 | 3.30 | 0.65 | 1.55 | 3.09 | 64.93 |
NR Sample | Properties | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Qv (mL/mL) | −Qw (mg/mg) | VR (-) | αc (-) | |
NR0 | 5.47 ± 0.08 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.155 ± 0.01 | 0.183 ± 0.01 |
NR5 | 5.24 ± 0.38 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.161 ± 0.01 | 0.191 ± 0.01 |
NR10 | 5.21 ± 0.07 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.161 ± 0.01 | 0.192 ± 0.01 |
NR15 | 5.36 ± 2.20 | 0.02 ± 0.32 | 0.172 ± 0.06 | 0.187 ± 0.09 |
NR20 | 4.48 ± 1.14 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.190 ± 0.05 | 0.223 ± 0.08 |
NR25 | 4.28 ± 0.06 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.189 ± 0.01 | 0.234 ± 0.01 |
NR5S | 5.53 ± 0.06 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.153 ± 0.01 | 0.181 ± 0.01 |
NR10S | 5.11 ± 0.08 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.164 ± 0.01 | 0.196 ± 0.01 |
NR15S | 5.21 ± 0.44 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 0.162 ± 0.01 | 0.192 ± 0.02 |
NR20S | 4.84 ± 0.11 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 0.171 ± 0.01 | 0.207 ± 0.01 |
NR25S | 5.23 ± 0.15 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 0.161 ± 0.01 | 0.191 ± 0.01 |
NR Sample | Properties | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Se100 (MPa) | TSb (MPa) | Eb (%) | Se100* (MPa) | TSb* (MPa) | Eb* (%) | AF (-) | |
NR0 | 0.64 ± 0.01 | 14.9 ± 0.5 a,d | 1287 ± 1 | 0.87 ± 0.02 | 16.3 ± 1.3 | 424 ± 156 | 0.36 |
NR5 | 0.65 ± 0.04 | 11.5 ± 1.4 b,c | 1096 ± 70 | 0.77 ± 0.01 | 9.8 ± 0.3 | 917 ± 26 | 0.72 |
NR10 | 0.73 ± 0.05 | 12.5 ± 1.5 a,b,c | 1196 ± 55 | 0.74 ± 0.03 | 14.0 ± 0.8 | 1133 ± 33 | 1.06 |
NR15 | 0.77 ± 0.02 | 13.5 ± 1.2 a,b | 1212 ± 63 | 0.86 ± 0.02 | 12.4 ± 0.4 | 1028 ± 41 | 0.78 |
NR20 | 0.81 ± 0.02 | 11.7 ± 0.6 b,c | 1136 ± 31 | 0.84 ± 0.08 | 10.2 ± 0.1 | 963 ± 19 | 0.74 |
NR25 | 1.00 ± 0.03 | 10.6 ± 0.4 c | 980 ± 24 | 1.14 ± 0.02 | 9.5 ± 0.7 | 811 ± 39 | 0.74 |
NR5S | 0.63 ± 0.01 | 13.3 ± 1.5 d,e,f | 1242 ± 37 | 0.73 ± 0.01 | 12.6 ± 1.8 | 1064 ± 69 | 0.81 |
NR10S | 0.72 ± 0.02 | 15.8 ± 0.7 d | 1226 ± 26 | 0.76 ± 0.04 | 14.7 ± 1.0 | 1133 ± 46 | 0.86 |
NR15S | 0.73 ± 0.02 | 13.2 ± 0.9 d,e | 1182 ± 44 | 0.93 ± 0.02 | 14.5 ± 0.2 | 1043 ± 12 | 0.97 |
NR20S | 0.81 ± 0.02 | 11.7 ± 0.6 e | 1095 ± 10 | 0.97 ± 0.04 | 11.9 ± 0.7 | 962 ± 19 | 0.89 |
NR25S | 0.86 ± 0.03 | 10.4 ± 0.4 f | 1016 ± 35 | 1.05 ± 0.06 | 11.0 ± 0.9 | 927 ± 41 | 0.97 |
Parameters | Content of Filler | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | |
F(1.8) | 5.32 | 5.32 | 5.32 | 5.32 | 5.32 |
F value | 3.95 | 21.0 | 0.234 | 0.027 | 0.586 |
p | 0.082 | 0.004 | 0.641 | 0.873 | 0.485 |
Significant difference | NO | YES | NO | NO | NO |
NR Sample | Properties | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ts (N/mm) | HA (°ShA) | ΔW1 (N·mm) | ΔW5 (N·mm) | EM (%) | |
NR0 | 7.18 ± 0.73 | 48.3 ± 2.2 a | 30.33 | 24.17 | 9.4 |
NR5 | 5.85 ± 0.01 | 51.0 ± 2.0 a,b | 34.77 | 24.23 | 16.1 |
NR10 | 6.20 ± 0.33 | 52.3 ± 2.0 b,c | 43.44 | 28.65 | 18.9 |
NR15 | 4.28 ± 0.03 | 53.0 ± 1.9 b,c | 50.13 | 31.03 | 23.9 |
NR20 | 4.84 ± 0.07 | 54.2 ± 1.8 c | 53.75 | 27.99 | 37.4 |
NR25 | 4.73 ± 0.15 | 57.6 ± 2.1 d | 67.97 | 32.94 | 38.9 |
NR5S | 4.83 ± 0.31 | 51.8 ± 2.2 e | 35.32 | 24.08 | 18.8 |
NR10S | 5.18 ± 0.75 | 52.3 ± 1.1 e | 43.65 | 29.02 | 17.8 |
NR15S | 5.79 ± 1.52 | 54.0 ± 1.9 e | 49.00 | 26.80 | 31.0 |
NR20S | 5.57 ± 1.03 | 57.4 ± 2.2 f | 56.83 | 29.26 | 35.7 |
NR25S | 4.53 ± 0.33 | 59.6 ± 1.6 g | 64.36 | 32.14 | 38.7 |
Parameters | Content of Filler | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | |
F(1.18) | 4.414 | 4.414 | 4.414 | 4.414 | 4.414 |
F value | 1.770 | 0.078 | 1.050 | 7.620 | 5.630 |
p | 0.200 | 0.784 | 0.320 | 0.014 | 0.032 |
Significant difference | NO | NO | NO | YES | YES |
Unmodified (F = 16.3; p < 0.001) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sample | Parameters | NR5 | NR10 | NR15 | NR20 | NR25 |
NR0 | t value | 1.59 | 12.70 * | 8.20 * | 11.95 * | 10.03 * |
p | 0.973 | <0.001 | 0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
NR5 | t value | - | 11.20 * | 6.61 * | 10.36 * | 8.44 * |
p | - | <0.001 | 0.007 | <0.001 | 0.003 | |
NR10 | t value | - | - | 4.55 | 0.80 | 2.71 |
p | - | - | 0.082 | 0.999 | 0.749 | |
NR15 | t value | - | - | - | 3.75 | 1.84 |
p | - | - | - | 0.354 | 0.920 | |
NR20 | t value | - | - | - | - | 1.92 |
p | - | - | - | - | 0.950 | |
Modified (F = 59.6; p < 0.001) | ||||||
Sample | Parameters | NR5 | NR10 | NR15 | NR20 | NR25 |
NR0 | t value | 9.05 * | 3.54 | 0.83 | 4.67 | 16.20 * |
p | <0.001 | 0.335 | 0.993 | 0.099 | <0.001 | |
NR5S | t value | - | 5.51 * | 9.87 * | 13.72 * | 25.20 * |
p | - | 0.020 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <.001 | |
NR10S | t value | - | - | 4.364 | 8.21 * | 19.70 * |
p | - | - | 0.091 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
NR15S | t value | - | - | - | 3.85 | 15.30 * |
p | - | - | - | 0.177 | <0.001 | |
NR20S | t value | - | - | - | - | 11.50 * |
p | - | - | - | - | <0.001 |
Parameters | Content of Filler | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | |
F critical | 4.60 | 4.75 | 4.35 | 5.12 | 4.84 |
F value | 26.9 | 62.7 | 39.7 | 43.0 | 142.0 |
p | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Significant difference | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
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© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Smejda-Krzewicka, A.; Mrozowski, K.; Strzelec, K. Effect of Modified and Unmodified Oak Bark (Quercus Cortex) on the Cross-Linking Process and Mechanical, Anti-Aging, and Hydrophobic Properties of Biocomposites Produced from Natural Rubber (NR). Materials 2024, 17, 1968. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17091968
Smejda-Krzewicka A, Mrozowski K, Strzelec K. Effect of Modified and Unmodified Oak Bark (Quercus Cortex) on the Cross-Linking Process and Mechanical, Anti-Aging, and Hydrophobic Properties of Biocomposites Produced from Natural Rubber (NR). Materials. 2024; 17(9):1968. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17091968
Chicago/Turabian StyleSmejda-Krzewicka, Aleksandra, Konrad Mrozowski, and Krzysztof Strzelec. 2024. "Effect of Modified and Unmodified Oak Bark (Quercus Cortex) on the Cross-Linking Process and Mechanical, Anti-Aging, and Hydrophobic Properties of Biocomposites Produced from Natural Rubber (NR)" Materials 17, no. 9: 1968. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17091968