Next Article in Journal
Effect of Post-Weld Heat Treatment on Microstructure and Hardness Evolution of the Martensitic Hardfacing Layers for Hot Forging Tools Repair
Previous Article in Journal
The Influence of Selected Properties of Sintered Iron Doped with Lubricants on Its Tribological Properties
Previous Article in Special Issue
The Effects of Sand Incorporation on the Pore Structure, Strength, and Fractal Characteristics of Alkali-Activated Slag Cementitious Materials
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Materials
Volume 18
Issue 17
10.3390/ma18174212
materials-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Assessment of Time-Dependent Hydration Products in Olivine-Substituted Cement Mortars

by
Yusuf Tahir Altuncı
1,* and
Cenk Öcal
2
1
Department of Construction, Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Isparta University of Applied Science, Isparta 32260, Turkey
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Isparta University of Applied Science, Isparta 32260, Turkey
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Materials 2025, 18(17), 4212; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18174212
Submission received: 1 August 2025 / Revised: 27 August 2025 / Accepted: 27 August 2025 / Published: 8 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Construction Materials for Sustainable and Greener Applications)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

It is known that approximately 8% of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions originate from cement production. Consequently, there is ongoing rapid research into environmentally friendly and alternative materials that could substitute for cement. Olivine [(Mg, Fe)2SiO4] is an abundant mineral in the Earth’s crust that facilitates CO2 sequestration due to its high solubility. This study investigates the effects of hydration mechanisms in olivine-substituted cement mortars on their compressive strength, microstructural characteristics, and physical properties. For this purpose, standard cement mortars were produced using CEM IV 32.5 N-type cement with olivine substitution rates of 0%, 10%, and 20%. The compressive strength of the specimens was initially determined at 7, 28, and 90 days. Subsequently, the hydration mechanisms at 7, 28, and 90 days were characterized using X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Differential Thermal Analysis/Thermogravimetric Analysis (DTA/TG), and Scanning Electron Microscopy-Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). The results demonstrated that the 10% substitution rate complies with the BS EN 196-1 standard, and olivine can be substituted for CEM IV type cement up to 10% without requiring calcination.

1. Introduction

The housing demand arising from population growth is the primary reason why cement is the second most used material after water [1]. Global cement production averages 4 billion tons annually, with reports indicating that each unit of cement production generates an equivalent unit of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere [2]. Furthermore, it has been reported that approximately 8% of anthropogenic atmospheric CO2 emissions originate from cement production [3]. The processes involved in cement production contribute to climate change and global warming [4,5,6]. It is imperative to implement measures against these factors that trigger global warming [7,8]. One such measure is minimizing CO2 emissions released during cement production [9,10,11,12,13]. There is ongoing intensive research into alternative raw materials that could substitute clinker, the main raw material, without requiring exposure to high temperatures, and can be used in their natural state [14].
Olivine is one of these alternative minerals abundant in the earth and is highly suitable for CO2 sequestration due to its high solubility [15]. It is rich in iron in its chemical composition, and the other high compound in its composition is silicium dioxide (SiO2) [16]. Olivine resources on Earth are known to be abundant enough to decompose all anthropogenic emissions for the next 1000 years [17]. It is reported in the literature that the use of olivine aggregates in cement and lime mortars provides environmental benefits by sequestering CO2 and converting it to magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) [18].
A literature review was conducted by entering the formula “(AB = (olivine) and AB = (cement)) or (TI = (olivine) and TI = (cement)) or (AK = (olivine) and AK = (cement))” into the Web of Science search tab to identify significant studies on the use of olivine powder as a cement replacement material. The resulting 104 studies were individually examined, and 10 research articles within the scope of the investigation were listed. A summary of these studies is presented in Table 1.
In the literature, hydration reactions have been examined in numerous studies, where raw materials such as metakaolin [27,28], graphene [29,30], zeolite [31], calcined clay [32,33], limestone [32,33,34,35], pumice [36], fly ash [37], and diatomite [38] were used as cement replacement materials. However, as evident from Table 1 and the literature review, there are no studies investigating hydration reactions where olivine minerals are used as cement-replacement materials [39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83].
Therefore, this study investigates the effects of hydration mechanisms in olivine-substituted cement mortars on compressive strength, microstructural, and physical properties. For this purpose, standard cement mortars were produced by substituting olivine at rates of 0%, 10%, and 20% in CEM IV 32.5 N-type cement, and the compressive strengths of the specimens were determined at 7, 28, and 90 days. Subsequently, the hydration mechanisms of specimens at different curing ages were characterized using XRD, FT-IR, DTA/TG, and SEM-EDS; in addition, their chemical and physical properties were evaluated through standard cement tests. It should be noted that olivine powder, in terms of its chemical composition, shows similarities to high-magnesium volcanic pozzolans [16,19,84]. According to the BS EN 197-1 standard, CEM IV 32.5 N type cement may contain 11–55% silica fume, pozzolan, or fly ash [85]. In preliminary trials, olivine powder was tested as a partial replacement for CEM IV 32.5 N cement at substitution levels of 30%, 40%, and 50%. However, the compressive strengths obtained at these levels did not meet the threshold values specified in the BS EN 197-1 standard [85]; therefore, the time-dependent hydration process of these ratios was not monitored. Consequently, in this study, olivine powder was used as a replacement for CEM IV 32.5 N cement at a maximum substitution level of 20%.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

Within the scope of this study, CEM IV 32.5 N-type Portland cement obtained from the Göltaş cement factory, olivine powder sourced from the Muğla region of Turkiye, CEN standard sand, and tap water were used. The chemical properties of the CEM IV 32.5 N cement and olivine used in this study are presented in Table 2.

2.2. Methods

Pure and homogeneous olivine powder was sieved using an LSN-200 Hosokawa Alpine Air Jet Sieve device to obtain a 90-micron fraction for use as a cement replacement material. The specific surface areas of the olivine powder-substituted cement specimens were determined using a Toni Technik Model 7202 device, while their specific gravities were determined using a Quanta Chrome MVP-1 model device.
Mortar specimens were prepared according to BS EN 196-1 [84] standard using a laboratory-type mixer, then placed in rectangular prismatic molds measuring 40 × 40 × 160 mm and subjected to compaction. The notation and mixture information for the olivine-substituted specimens used in the study are presented in Table 3.
The prepared specimens were stored in laboratory conditions at 90% humidity and 20 ± 1 °C for 24 h. Following this period, the specimens were demoulded and maintained in a curing pool until the testing date. At 7, 28, and 90 days, specimens were retrieved from the pool and split in half, yielding six specimens. Their compressive strength was determined using a Toni Technic testing machine with a 1500 kN load capacity in accordance with the BS EN 196-1 [86] standard. The final compressive strengths were calculated by averaging the compressive strength values of the specimens.
After being subjected to compressive strength testing, the specimens were pulverized for subsequent XRD, FT-IR, DTA/TG, and SEM-EDS analyses. X-ray diffraction was conducted using a Bruker D8 Advance Twin-Twin instrument. FT-IR analysis was performed using a Jasco FT/IR 4700 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. Thermal analyses were carried out using a Seiko SII TG/DTA 7200 instrument. SEM-EDS analyses were performed using a Fei Quanta FEG 250 instrument. The experimental procedures are summarized in Table 4.

3. Experimental Results and Discussion

3.1. Physical and Chemical Analysis

Sieve analysis, specific gravity, and Blaine-specific surface area tests were performed to determine the physical properties of the olivine-substituted specimens, and XRF tests were performed to determine the chemical properties. The physical properties of the olivine-substituted samples are presented in Table 5.
As observed in Table 4, the specific gravity increases, while the Blaine specific surface area decreases with increasing substitution rate. This phenomenon can be attributed to the higher specific gravity of olivine compared to cement. According to Table 5, the chemical composition of olivine primarily consists of CaO, Fe2O3, MgO, and SiO2. Various olivine powders with different chemical compositions have been reported in the literature [88,89]. This variation in chemical composition can be attributed to regional differences and geological stratification of olivine deposits. Furthermore, the MgO content in olivine is approximately 30 times higher than that in cement. It is well established that excessive MgO content in clinker leads to expansion [85]. However, in our study, olivine substitution up to 10% did not cause expansion. Previous studies in the literature have investigated the reactivity of MgO [90,91], which supports our findings.

3.2. XRD Analysis of the Cement Mortar

Images showing the 7-day XRD analysis results of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens are given in Figure 1.
The analysis of 7-day XRD results reveals that the reference specimen is dominated by quartz, calcium silicates, and feldspar group minerals [92]. The hydration of belite (C2S) and alite (C3S) components resulted in the formation of portlandite (Ca(OH)2) and calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gels [93]. The distinct Ca(OH)2 peaks around 2 Theta 18° and 34° provide evidence for this. The Ca(OH)2 peaks in the 10Sub specimen are more pronounced compared to both the reference and 20Sub specimens. This indicates that 10% olivine substitution contributes to Ca(OH)2 formation during the hydration process. Due to the prominent larnite (Ca2SiO4) and hatrurite (Ca3SiO5) peaks, there is no adverse effect on strength performance [94]. Olivine also acted as an additional silicate source due to its magnesium silicate content [95]. However, in the 20Sub specimen, despite the release of additional silicate, Ca2SiO4 and Ca3SiO5 formations were not observed. This negatively impacted the strength. The 28-day XRD analysis results for the Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens are presented in Figure 2.
Examination of the 28-day XRD results for the reference specimen reveals ongoing hydration ((Ca(OH)2, albite (NaAlSi3O8), orthoclase (KAlSi3O8), and calcium silicate (CaSiO3)), while unhydrated clinker phases (SiO2) are still present. In the XRD pattern of the 10Sub specimen, the higher Ca(OH)2 peak and lower SiO2 peak compared to the reference specimen can be attributed to the influence of olivine substitution on the hydration process. Additionally, the olivine substitution led to the formation of the calcium silicate hydroxide (Ca5(Si6O16)(OH)2) structure, resulting in a modification of hydration products. The analysis of the XRD pattern for the 20Sub specimen shows a decrease in the Ca(OH)2 peak compared to the 10Sub specimen. Furthermore, due to the excessive Mg content [96], magnesium aluminum hydride (Mg(AlH4)2) and anorthite (Ca0.66Na0.34Al1.66Si2.34O8) phases were formed. This phenomenon [97] disrupted the hydration mechanism of the 20Sub specimen, leading to a reduction in strength. The 90-day XRD analysis results for the Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens are presented in Figure 3.
Detailed examination of 90-day XRD patterns indicates that the reference specimen has largely completed its hydration (Ca(OH)2), although carbonation (calcite (CaCO3)) continues. In the 10Sub specimen, while the Ca(OH)2 content decreased compared to the reference specimen, slight increases in CaCO3 and SiO2 components were observed. This supported C-S-H formation without causing excessive depletion of Ca(OH)2, as both C-S-H and Ca(OH)2 formed as products of the same hydration reaction [98]. In the 20Sub specimen, the increased formation of carbonation (CaCO3 + H2O), SiO2, and NaK-SiAlO8 compared to the reference and 10Sub specimens disrupted the phase structure [99]. This resulted in increased strength loss over the long term [100].
However, olivine replacement is particularly evident with the decrease in CH peaks on days 28 and 90. This can be explained by the reaction of silicates that contribute to olivine formation. Furthermore, the increased amount of gel phases is evidence of olivine’s participation in the hydration process. However, the high amount of olivine (20Sub) also led to greater consumption of Ca(OH)2. Therefore, the decrease in CH can be attributed to reactions caused by the increased olivine content and the decreased cement content.

3.3. FT-IR Analysis of the Cement Mortar

In the FT-IR spectrum, the x-axis (Wavenumber cm−1) indicates how much infrared light the specimen absorbs at specific wavelengths, while the y-axis (Transmittance %) shows the proportion of light transmitted through the specimen [101]. In Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure 6, the yellow line represents the reference specimen, the green line represents the 10Sub specimen, and the brown line represents the 20Sub specimen. The 7-day FT-IR analysis results for the Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens are presented in Figure 4.
The analysis of Figure 4 reveals that the more pronounced peaks in the 600–700 cm−1 region are attributable to increased olivine substitution rates. The increasing peak intensity in the 850–1000 cm−1 region correlates with higher olivine content. The weak peaks in the 1000–1700 cm−1 range suggest carbonation reactions between olivine and cement phases, while the prominent peaks indicate the interaction between the specimen and CO32−-containing components (such as calcite and dolomite carbonates). The stable slope in the 2500–3200 cm−1 region results from cement hydration products (such as Ca(OH)2) or their reaction with water. Water content particularly varies in the 3200–3600 cm−1 region. Consequently, as the substitution rate increases, hydration products decrease, leading to increased permeability. This corresponds with the increased distance from the x-axis with higher substitution rates, as shown in Figure 4. The 28-day FT-IR analysis results for the Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens are presented in Figure 5.
As olivine is a silicate-based mineral, silicon–oxygen (Si-O), magnesium–oxygen (Mg-O), and iron–oxygen (Fe-O) bonds are particularly notable in the Figure 5 spectrum. The 500–700 cm−1 range indicates the reorganization of magnesium and iron bonds (Mg-O and Fe-O) in the cement matrix. Calcite formation is observed around 900 cm−1. Asymmetric stretching in the 10Sub and 20Sub specimens between 1000 and 1200 cm−1 is associated with silicon–oxygen–silicon (Si-O-Si) stretching. The peaks in this region indicate the formation of new silicate phases. Carbonation formation in the 1400–1500 cm−1 region can be attributed to pH changes resulting from olivine’s reaction with water. Carbonation is most pronounced in the 20Sub specimen. The formation of different peaks in the 3200–3600 cm−1 range for 10Sub and 20Sub specimens is related to olivine substitution affecting the water-binding mechanism in the cement matrix. An analysis of Figure 4 shows that the more pronounced peaks in the 600–700 cm−1 region are due to increased olivine substitution rates. The intensity of peaks in the 850–1000 cm−1 region correlates with increased olivine content. Weak peaks in the 1000–1700 cm−1 range suggest carbonation reactions between olivine and cement phases, while prominent peaks indicate interaction with CO32−-containing components (such as calcite and dolomite carbonates). The stable slope in the 2500–3200 cm−1 region results from cement hydration products (such as Ca(OH)2) or their reaction with water. Water content particularly varies in the 3200–3600 cm−1 region. Consequently, as the substitution rate increases, hydration products decrease, leading to increased permeability. This corresponds with the increased distance from the x-axis with higher substitution rates, as shown in Figure 4. The 90-day FT-IR analysis results for the Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens are presented in Figure 6.
In the 90-day FT-IR spectrum (Figure 6), the 500–700 cm−1 range is notable as the region where olivine reacts with cement hydration products. The asymmetric stretching in the 1000–1200 cm−1 region is similar to the 28-day results (Figure 5). The variation between 10Sub and 20Sub specimens in this region indicates that olivine substitution affects the silicate compositions in the concrete matrix. The more pronounced peaks of the 20Sub specimen in the 3000–3600 cm−1 range indicate adverse effects on hydration. This observation aligns with the XRD results.

3.4. Thermal Analysis of the Cement Mortar

DTA/TG analyses were conducted to understand the high-temperature resistance, hydration products, carbonation process, and phase transitions of olivine-substituted specimens. The 7-day thermal analysis results for the Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens are presented in Figure 7.
The analysis of Figure 7 reveals endothermic and exothermic reactions between 100 and 600 °C in the DTA curves. It is observed that free water evaporates between 100 and 200 °C, the C-S-H structure begins to deteriorate between 200 and 400 °C, Ca(OH)2 decomposition occurs between 400 and 550 °C [102] (Equation (1), and the curves become more stable after 600 °C).
Ca(OH)2 → CaO + H2O
The TG curves indicate that specimens undergo mass loss as temperature increases (particularly between 200 and 600 °C), with mass loss beginning to decelerate after 600 °C. Moreover, fewer thermal events occurred in the reference specimen. However, the 10Sub specimen is more stable due to its minimal mass loss. In the 20Sub specimen, the increased olivine substitution rate led to more pronounced phase transformations and decomposition events. The 28-day thermal analysis results for the Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens are presented in Figure 8.
Figure 8 shows that relative humidity evaporation causes negligible mass loss in the 0–200 °C range. The sharp decline in the TG curve indicates that olivine begins to decompose in the 200–600 °C range. Within this temperature range, Fe-containing olivine continued to form iron (Fe2O), while Mg-containing olivine formed Mg2O [103]. At temperatures above 800 °C, olivine completely decomposed, forming MgO, SiO2, and Fe2O3 [104]. Additionally, the reference specimen generally exhibited lower mass loss and thermal reaction. Although the 20Sub specimen showed the lowest thermal stability, it experienced the highest mass loss. This can be attributed to olivine’s lower thermal reactivity and the decomposition caused by excess MgO in the olivine content. This supports the formation of brucite (Mg(OH)2). The 10Sub specimen demonstrated moderate effects. In order to better interpret the thermal behavior of the 28-day specimens, the total mass loss between 16.49 °C and 1023.30 °C was calculated using the TG data of each specimen. The results presented in Table 6 indicate that all specimens underwent gradual decomposition, with mass losses ranging from 5.64% to 6.58%.
The 20Sub sample exhibited lower total mass loss compared to both the reference and 10Sub samples. Increasing the olivine substitution rate resulted in reduced porosity and microstructural improvements. The 90-day thermal analysis results for the Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens are presented in Figure 9.
Analysis of Figure 9 reveals negligible mass losses in the 0–200 °C range. The largest endothermic peak and greatest weight loss occurred between 400 and 600 °C. Olivine began to decompose within this temperature range. Particularly, the crystal structures of Fe2SiO4 (fayalite) and Mg2SiO4 (forsterite) deteriorated [103] (Equations (2) and (3)).
Fe2SiO4 → 2FeO + SiO2
Mg2SiO4 → 2MgO + SiO2
In the 600–800 °C range, olivine completely decomposed. After 800 °C, Mg stabilized, and FeO transformed into Fe2O3 [104]. Moreover, olivine-substituted specimens appear to have lower thermal stability but greater mass loss stability compared to the reference specimen. This indicates that olivine substitution improves the long-term thermal stability of concrete by reducing mass loss.

3.5. SEM and EDS Analysis of the Cement Mortar

The 7-day SEM and EDS images of the Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens are presented in Figure 10, while the corresponding 7-day EDS results are provided in Table 7.
Figure 10a,d shows the porous and heterogeneous microstructure of the reference specimen. The C-S-H phase and Ca(OH)2 crystals formed after hydration are prominent. The highest peak originates from the C-S-H phase and Ca(OH)2. The high silicon (Si) content and low Mg and Fe ratios are attributable to the cement type. In Figure 10b,e, needle-like structures (ettringite) and a differentiated microstructure due to olivine mineral were observed. These angular particles serve as fillers within the cement matrix. Additionally, increases in Mg and Si elements are notable due to olivine content. This increase contributed to the cement matrix. The calcium (Ca) ratio is relatively lower due to the reduction in total cement content. However, the C-S-H phase still contributes to matrix durability. Figure 10c,f shows a denser microstructure and residues related to olivine minerals. Furthermore, with olivine substitution, the increase in Mg and Si ratios and decrease in Ca ratio continued. The increase in olivine content slowed hydration. Studies in the literature demonstrate similar situations causing hydration retardation [105,106,107,108,109,110,111]. The 28-day SEM and EDS images of the Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens are presented in Figure 11, while the corresponding 28-day EDS results are provided in Table 8.
The examination of 28-day SEM images of the reference specimen (Figure 11a,d) shows an increase in classical C-S-H phases that enhance strength properties. Additionally, the presence of large and irregular crystal structures (Ca(OH)2) is notable. This limits long-term strength development due to carbonation risk. The 10Sub specimen (Figure 11b,e) exhibits a more compact microstructure compared to the reference specimen (Figure 11a,d). Olivine particles have integrated more tightly and densely into the cement matrix. This is related to both the physical filling effect and the chemical properties of olivine. The Mg content from olivine facilitated increased silicate formation in hydration products, manifesting in needle-like structures. While the 20Sub specimen (Figure 11c,f) exhibits a dense microstructure, it shows issues with homogeneity. More pronounced clustering of olivine particles within the matrix has led to irregularities and heterogeneous structures. This results from the high presence of Mg (Brucite formation). The density of C-S-H phases increased but displayed a less homogeneous structure compared to the 10Sub specimen (Figure 11b,e). The 90-day SEM and EDS images of the Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens are presented in Figure 12, while the corresponding 90-day EDS results are provided in Table 9.
At the end of the 90-day hydration, mature C-S-H phases and Ca(OH)2 crystals are clearly observed in the reference specimen (Figure 12a,d). Although most pores have closed, capillary voids still persist in some regions. This formation aligns with the expected element distribution for the reference specimen. In the cement matrix formed with 10% olivine substitution, a more compact structure was observed after the 90-day period (Figure 12b,e). The homogeneous distribution in the chemical structure enhanced the microstructure’s strength [112]. Although Ca content decreased due to olivine substitution, it did not lead to significant weakening in the microstructure. Furthermore, olivine contribution strengthened the microstructure by promoting the formation of Mg-containing phases. The 90-day curing period largely eliminated pores, contributing to matrix homogenization. This indicates optimization of the hydration process through olivine contribution. A 20% olivine substitution increased the density but limited void filling in some regions (Figure 12c,f). Fayalite and forsterite decomposition occurred. The density of hydration products indicates that olivine contribution did not have a strong effect on binding phases. Although the decrease in the Ca content supported the formation of new structures incorporating olivine contribution in binding phases, regional heterogeneity led to strength reductions. Additionally, a significant decrease in the Ca ratio was observed with increased olivine content. This resulted in slower hydration processes.

3.6. Compressive Strength

The 7-, 28-, and 90-day compressive strength values for Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens are presented in Figure 13.
The compressive strength of the cement mortar depends on the mixing-water content, hydration process, specific surface area of the binding material, substitution rate, and granulometry [36,113,114]. An analysis of Figure 13 shows that the compressive strength reduction rates of 10Sub specimens compared to the reference specimen are as follows: 6.40% for 7-day specimens, 6.56% for 28-day specimens, and 18.26% for 90-day specimens. The compressive strength reduction rates of 20Sub specimens compared to the reference specimen are as follows: 19.60% for 7-day specimens, 28.14% for 28-day specimens, and 34.35% for 90-day specimens. The data obtained indicates that the compressive strength decreases with the increasing substitution rate. SEM images (Figure 10, Figure 11 and Figure 12) support that the 20Sub specimen contains more voids compared to the reference and 10Sub specimens. Although the compressive strength value of the 10Sub specimen is lower than the reference specimen, it remains within the limit values according to BS EN 197-1 [85] standard. This indicates that olivine can be substituted for CEM IV 325 N-type cement up to 10%.

4. Conclusions

In this study investigating the hydration mechanisms of olivine-substituted cement mortars, the role of olivine on compressive strength, microstructural characteristics, and physical properties was examined in detail. The study concluded that using olivine as a primary raw material in cement would be beneficial from both environmental and economic perspectives. In particular, reducing the carbon footprint will contribute to making cement a more environmentally friendly and sustainable building material. In this context, the results obtained from the study are as follows:
  • Cement is the phase responsible for strength development.
  • Olivine fine fractions fill voids through a filling effect, increasing the density of the matrix.
  • According to XRD results, while the 20Sub specimen exhibited a more porous structure, the 10Sub specimen contained higher concentrations of Ca(OH)2 and C-S-H phases.
  • The olivine substitution significantly altered the chemical bonds of Si-O, Mg-O, and Fe-O in the cement matrix, leading to notable changes in the FT-IR spectrum. This indicates that 10% olivine substitution positively influenced the hydration and carbonation processes.
  • DTA/TG analysis revealed that 20% olivine substitution decreased the thermal stability of concrete while effectively reducing mass loss. The 10% olivine substitution demonstrated a moderating effect, producing intermediate results for both parameters. The reference specimen exhibited the highest values for both parameters. These findings suggest that olivine substitution has the potential to enhance the long-term properties of concrete, although higher substitution rates may compromise certain characteristics.
  • SEM-EDS analysis indicated that olivine substitution improved the microstructure of cement. However, incorporating olivine beyond 10% adversely affected the homogeneity and strength of the matrix.
  • The 10% olivine substitution strengthened the cement matrix by facilitating the balanced formation of microstructure and hydration products.
  • In contrast, 20% olivine substitution presented a heterogeneous structure in the cement matrix and negatively impacted hydration.
  • The compressive strength value of the 10Sub specimen remains within the limit values specified by BS EN 197-1 [85] standard.
  • Olivine can be substituted for CEM IV 32.5 N-type cement up to 10%.
  • The ability to use olivine directly as a cement replacement material without calcination shows promise for green cement and ecological concrete production. The results demonstrate the viability of olivine substitution in sustainable building materials and its effects on microstructure.
In conclusion, olivine substitution alters the chemical structure of concrete, particularly through interactions with silicate, carbonate, and oxide groups. This study demonstrates that concrete containing olivine can have significant effects on environmental durability and mechanical properties.

5. Recommendations

While olivine substitution may result in lower early-age strength, this can be addressed through careful monitoring of the curing process and implementation of extended curing conditions.
As the olivine content increases, the Ca ratio in the cement matrix decreases. Therefore, combinations with different additives should be developed, particularly to balance the Ca content. This approach could enhance the homogeneity and strength of the matrix.
The incorporation of olivine improves the thermal reactions and structural properties of olivine-substituted specimens. This suggests that olivine substitution could be particularly advantageous in applications where the long-term thermal stability of concrete is critical. Additionally, olivine can have beneficial effects on water permeability by filling voids in the concrete microstructure. In this context, the use of olivine could contribute to efforts in developing sustainable construction materials. Therefore, further research into the utilization of olivine in cement and concrete production would be beneficial.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.T.A. and C.Ö.; methodology, Y.T.A. and C.Ö.; software, Y.T.A. and C.Ö.; validation, Y.T.A. and C.Ö.; formal analysis, Y.T.A. and C.Ö.; investigation, Y.T.A. and C.Ö.; resources, Y.T.A. and C.Ö.; data curation, Y.T.A.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.T.A.; writing—review and editing, Y.T.A. and C.Ö.; visualization, Y.T.A.; supervision, Y.T.A.; funding acquisition, Y.T.A. and C.Ö. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude to Göltaş Cement Corporation for their contributions.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors indicate that they have no known personal relationships or competing financial interests that could have appeared to influence the work reported in the manuscript.

References

  1. Scrivener, K.L.; John, V.M.; Gartner, E.M. Eco-efficient cements: Potential economically viable solutions for a low-CO2 cement-based materials industry. Cem. Concr. Res. 2018, 114, 2–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Asteris, P.G.; Skentou, A.D.; Bardhan, A.; Samui, P.; Pilakoutas, K. Predicting concrete compressive strength using hybrid ensembling of surrogate machine learning models. Cem. Concr. Res. 2021, 145, 106449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Winnefeld, F.; Leemann, A.; German, A.; Lothenbach, B. CO2 storage in cement and concrete by mineral carbonation. Curr. Opin. Green Sustain. Chem. 2022, 38, 100672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Manjunatha, M.; Preethi, S.; Malingaraya Mounika, H.G.; Niveditha, K.N.; Ravi. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of concrete prepared with sustainable cement-based materials. Mater. Today Proc. 2021, 47, 3637–3644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Costa, F.N.; Ribeiro, D.V. Reduction in CO2 emissions during production of cement, with partial replacement of traditional raw materials by civil construction waste (CCW). J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 276, 123302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Mohamad, N.; Muthusamy, K.; Embong, R.; Kusbiantoro, A.; Hashim, M.H. Environmental impact of cement production and solutions: A review. Mater. Today Proc. 2022, 48, 741–746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Kayakuş, M.; Terzioğlu, M.; Erdoğan, D.; Zetter, S.A.; Kabas, O.; Moiceanu, G. European union 2030 carbon emission target: The case of turkey. Sustainability 2023, 15, 13025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Rissman, J.; Bataille, C.; Masanet, E.; Aden, N.; Morrow, W.R.; Zhou, N.; Elliott, N.; Dell, R.; Heeren, N.; Huckestein, B.; et al. Technologies and policies to decarbonize global industry: Review and assessment of mitigation drivers through 2070. Appl. Energy 2020, 266, 114848. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Wojtacha-Rychter, K.; Kucharski, P.; Smolinski, A. Conventional and alternative sources of thermal energy in the production of cement—An impact on CO2 emission. Energies 2021, 14, 1539. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Nie, S.; Zhou, J.; Yang, F.; Lan, M.; Li, J.; Zhang, Z.; Chen, Z.; Xu, M.; Li, H.; Sanjayan, J.G. Analysis of theoretical carbon dioxide emissions from cement production: Methodology and application. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 334, 130270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Sousa, V.; Bogas, J.A. Comparison of energy consumption and carbon emissions from clinker and recycled cement production. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 306, 127277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Benhelal, E.; Shamsaei, E.; Rashid, M.I. Challenges against CO2 abatement strategies in cement industry: A review. J. Environ. Sci. 2021, 104, 84–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Altunci, Y.T.; Öcal, C. Engineering features of dung ash substituted cement mortars. BSEU J. Sci. 2021, 8, 24–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Aslan, Y.; Gürocak, Z. Investigation of pozzolanic properties of acidic and basic tuffs: A case study from Elazığ and Gümüşhane regions. Gümüşhane Univ. J. Sci. Technol. 2022, 12, 1024–1035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Westgate, P.; Ball, R.J.; Paine, K. Olivine as a reactive aggregate in lime mortars. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 195, 115–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Zhong, S.S.; Zhao, Y.Y.S.; Lin, H.; Chang, R.; Qi, C.; Wang, J.; Mo, B.; Wen, Y.; Yu, W.; Zhou, D.S.; et al. High-temperature oxidation of magnesium- and iron-rich olivine under a CO2 atmosphere: Implications for Venus. Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 1959. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Scott, A.; Oze, C.; Shah, V.; Yang, N.; Shanks, B.; Cheeseman, C.; Marshall, A.; Watson, M. Transformation of abundant magnesium silicate minerals for enhanced CO2 sequestration. Commun. Earth Environ. 2021, 2, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Saridhe, S.P.; Hareesh, M.; Priya, T.S.; Selvaraj, T. Role of olivine aggregate in lime and cement mortars for the sequestration of atmospheric CO2. Mater. Tehnol. 2023, 57, 135–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Ngono Onana, E.H.; Gentry, F.C.; Ndjigui, P.D. Petrological features of volcanic scoriae from the southern part of the Cameroon Volcanic Line and their supplementary cementations application. Heliyon 2022, 8, e08684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Gao, X.; Yu, Q.L. Effects of an eco-silica source based activator on functional alkali activated lightweight composites. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 215, 686–695. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Achang, M.; Radonjic, M. Adding olivine micro particles to Portland cement based wellbore cement slurry as a sacrificial material: A quest for the solution in mitigating corrosion of wellbore cement. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2021, 121, 104078. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Quercia, G.; Brouwers, H.J.H.; Garnier, A.; Luke, K. Influence of olivine nano-silica on hydration and performance of oil-well cement slurries. Mater. Des. 2016, 96, 162–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Pokharel, R.; Popa, I.C.; de Kok, Y.; King, H.E. Enhanced nesquehonite formation and stability in the presence of dissolved silica. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2024, 58, 362–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Shah, V.; Scott, A. Pozzolanic characteristics of silica recovered from olivine. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 332, 127378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Güçlüer, K.; Yaldız, M.R.; Günaydın, O. An investigation of the high-temperature behavior of basalt, olivine, and pyrophyllite additive mortars. Iran. J. Sci. Technol. Trans. Civ. Eng. 2023, 47, 1467–1484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Chen, Y.X.; Li, S.; Mezari, B.; Hensen, E.J.M.; Yu, R.; Schollbach, K.; Brouwers, H.J.H.; Yu, Q. Effect of highly dispersed colloidal olivine nano-silica on early age properties of ultra-high performance concrete. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2022, 131, 104564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Kalpokaitė-Dičkuvienė, R.; Baltušnikas, A.; Levinskas, R.; Čėsnienė, J. Incinerator residual ash–Metakaolin blended cements: Effect on cement hydration and properties. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 206, 297–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Kocak, Y. Effects of metakaolin on the hydration development of Portland–composite cement. J. Build. Eng. 2020, 31, 101419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Xu, G.; Du, S.; He, J.; Shi, X. The role of admixed graphene oxide in a cement hydration system. Carbon 2019, 148, 141–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. An, J.; Nam, B.H.; Alharbi, Y.; Cho, B.H.; Khawaji, M. Edge-oxidized graphene oxide (EOGO) in cement composites: Cement hydration and microstructure. Compos. Part B Eng. 2019, 173, 106795. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Kocak, Y.; Tascı, E.; Kaya, U. The Effect using natural zeolite on the properties and hydration characteristics of blended cements. Constr. Build. Mater. 2013, 47, 720–727. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Cardinaud, G.; Rozière, E.; Martinage, O.; Loukili, A.; Barnes-Davin, L.; Paris, M.; Deneele, D. Calcined clay–Limestone cements: Hydration processes with high and low-grade kaolinite clays. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 277, 122271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Zunino, F.; Scrivener, K. Assessing the effect of alkanolamine grinding aids in limestone calcined clay cements hydration. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 266, 121293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Briki, Y.; Zajac, M.; Ben Haha, M.; Scrivener, K. Impact of limestone fineness on cement hydration at early age. Cem. Concr. Res. 2021, 147, 106515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Khan, R.I.; Ashraf, W. Effects of ground wollastonite on cement hydration kinetics and strength development. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 218, 150–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Pınarcı, İ.; Kocak, Y. Hydration mechanisms and mechanical properties of pumice substituted cementitious binder. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 335, 127528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Kocak, Y.; Nas, S. The effect of using fly ash on the strength and hydration characteristics of blended cements. Constr. Build. Mater. 2014, 73, 25–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Kocak, B.; Pınarcı, İ.; Güvenç, U.; Kocak, Y. Prediction of compressive strengths of pumice-and diatomite-containing cement mortars with artificial intelligence-based applications. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023, 385, 131516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Karpova, E.; Skripkiūnas, G.; Barauskas, I.; Barauskienė, I.; Hodul, J. Influence of carbon nanotubes and polycarboxylate superplasticiser on the Portland cement hydration process. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 304, 124648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Xu, Y.; He, T.; Ma, X. The influence of calcium nitrate/sodium nitrate on the hydration process of cement paste mixed with alkali free liquid accelerator. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 347, 128555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Ji, X.; Pan, T.; Fu, C.; Han, F.; Zhao, W.; Sha, J.; Liu, J. Hydration, microstructure and mechanical properties of cement-based materials with heat-modified autoclaved aerated concrete waste. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 419, 135482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Li, J.; Chang, J.; Wang, T.; Zeng, T.; Li, J.; Zhang, J. Effects of phosphogypsum on hydration properties and strength of calcium aluminate cement. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 347, 128398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Mohan, M.K.; Rahul, A.V.; De Schutter, G.; Van Tittelboom, K. Early age hydration, rheology and pumping characteristics of CSA cement-based 3D printable concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 275, 122136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Gao, Y.; Guo, T.; Li, Z.; Zhou, Z.; Zhang, J. Mechanism of retarder on hydration process and mechanical properties of red mud-based geopolymer cementitious materials. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 356, 129306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Yang, Y.; Xu, J.; Zhan, B.; Gao, P.; Yu, Q.; Li, R.; Wang, J.; Wang, A.; Liu, G.; Zhang, Y. Study on hydration characteristics and mechanism of recycled powder-cement binary and multivariate systems. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 420, 135646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Gupta, S.; Muthukrishnan, S.; Kua, H.W. Comparing influence of inert biochar and silica rich biochar on cement mortar–Hydration kinetics and durability under chloride and sulfate environment. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 268, 121142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Zhang, Z.; Shao, Y.; Huang, L.; Liu, X.; Han, F.; Yan, P. A new hydration kinetic model based on boundary nucleation and growth mechanism with time-dependent growth rate: Application to quantitively characterize the influence of alkali on the early hydration of cement. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023, 411, 134616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Li, Z.; Lin, L.; Yu, J.; Tang, H.; Qin, J.; Qian, J. Performance of magnesium silicate hydrate cement modified with dipotassium hydrogen phosphate. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 323, 126389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Zhutovsky, S.; Shishkin, A. Recycling of hydrated Portland cement paste into new clinker. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 280, 122510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Liu, P.; Mo, L.; Zhang, Z. Effects of carbonation degree on the hydration reactivity of steel slag in cement-based materials. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023, 370, 130653. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Zhang, Q.; Liu, B.; Sun, Z.; Li, Q.; Wang, S.; Lu, X.; Liu, J.; Zhang, S. Preparation and hydration process of copper slag-granulated blast furnace slag-cement composites. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 421, 135717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Ouyang, X.; Wang, L.; Fu, J.; Xu, S.; Ma, Y. Surface properties of clay brick powder and its influence on hydration and strength development of cement paste. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 300, 123958. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Li, Y.; Guo, Y.; Lyu, Z.; Wei, X. Investigation of the effect of waterborne epoxy resins on the hydration kinetics and performance of cement blends. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 301, 124045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Yang, R.; He, T. Influence of liquid accelerators combined with mineral admixtures on early hydration of cement pastes. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 295, 123659. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Zhang, S.; Niu, D. Hydration and mechanical properties of cement-steel slag system incorporating different activators. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023, 363, 129981. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Lin, R.S.; Lee, H.S.; Han, Y.; Wang, X.Y. Experimental studies on hydration–strength–durability of limestone-cement-calcined Hwangtoh clay ternary composite. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 269, 121290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Lu, B.; Huo, Z.; Xu, Q.; Hou, G.; Wang, X.; Liu, J.; Hu, X. Characteristics of CSH under carbonation and its effects on the hydration and microstructure of cement paste. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023, 364, 129952. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Aodkeng, S.; Sinthupinyo, S.; Chamnankid, B.; Hanpongpun, W.; Chaipanich, A. Effect of carbon nanotubes/clay hybrid composite on mechanical properties, hydration heat and thermal analysis of cement-based materials. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 320, 126212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Wang, L.; Jin, M.; Wu, Y.; Zhou, Y.; Tang, S. Hydration, shrinkage, pore structure and fractal dimension of silica fume modified low heat Portland cement-based materials. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 272, 121952. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Dai, T.; Fang, C.; Liu, T.; Zheng, S.; Lei, G.; Jiang, G. Waste glass powder as a high temperature stabilizer in blended oil well cement pastes: Hydration, microstructure and mechanical properties. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 439, 137359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Wang, S.; Zhang, G.; Liang, C.; Huang, T.; Zhang, P. Insight into the early hydration characteristics of Portland cement with hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose highlighted by 1H low-field NMR. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 424, 135904. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Han, S.; Zhong, J.; Ding, W.; Ou, J. Strength, hydration, and microstructure of seawater sea-sand concrete using high-ferrite Portland cement. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 295, 123703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Lam, W.L.; Cai, Y.; Sun, K.; Shen, P.; Poon, C.S. Roles of ultra-fine waste glass powder in early hydration of Portland cement: Hydration kinetics, mechanical performance, and microstructure. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 415, 135042. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Cheng, L.; Jin, H.; Wu, Y.; Ren, Y.; Liu, J.; Xing, F. Influence of municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash particle size on cement hydration and performance. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 432, 158059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Sun, J.; Zhang, P. Effects of different composite mineral admixtures on the early hydration and long-term properties of cement-based materials: A comparative study. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 294, 123547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Zhang Ting Ma, B.; Jiang, D.; Jiang, Q.; Jin, Z. Comparative research on the effect of various mineral admixtures on the early hydration process of cement. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 301, 124372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Li, H.W.; Wang, R.; Wei, M.W.; Lei, N.Z.; Sun, H.X.; Fan, J.J. Mechanical properties and hydration mechanism of high-volume ultra-fine iron ore tailings cementitious materials. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 353, 129100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Heikal, M.; Zaki, M.E.A.; Ibrahim, S.M. Characterization, hydration, durability of nano-Fe2O3-composite cements subjected to sulphates and chlorides media. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 269, 121310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Li, X.; Li, J.; Lu, Z.; Chen, J. Properties and hydration mechanism of cement pastes in presence of nano-ZnO. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 289, 123080. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Zhang Tao Wu, P.; Jiang, Q.; Liu, Q.; Wang, Q.; Qiu, J.; Hu, S.; Lyu, X. The competitive hydration of SO42− and Cl− in alkali-activated slag cementitious materials. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023, 396, 132267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Xue, L.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, H. Hydration mechanisms and durability of hybrid alkaline cements (HACs): A review. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 266, 121039. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Shao, Z.; Cao, M. Hydration mechanism of limestone calcined clay cement containing calcined coal gangue. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 438, 136906. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Huo, B.; Zhang, Y. Effects of dicalcium ferrite on hydration and microstructure of cementitious material. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 411, 134604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Dorn, T.; Blask, O.; Stephan, D. Acceleration of cement hydration—A review of the working mechanisms, effects on setting time, and compressive strength development of accelerating admixtures. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 323, 126554. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Sun Jinxiao Song, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Zhao, S.; Guo, M.Z.; Jiang, L. Effect of red mud and phosphate on water resistance and hydration mechanism of magnesium oxychloride cement. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 413, 134844. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Wei, X.; Li, D.; Ming, F.; Yang, C.; Chen, L.; Liu, Y. Influence of low-temperature curing on the mechanical strength, hydration process, and microstructure of alkali-activated fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag mortar. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 269, 121811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Ma, M.; Mehdizadeh, H.; Guo, M.Z.; Ling, T.C. Effect of direct carbonation routes of basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS) on strength and hydration of blended cement paste. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 304, 124628. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Wu, Z.; Liu, J.; Zhang, G.; Wang, Y.; Wang, Y. Effect of aluminum sulfate alkali-free liquid accelerator with compound alkanol lamine on the hydration processes of Portland cement. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 308, 125101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Wang, J.; Ma, B.; Tan, H.; Du, C.; Chu, Z.; Luo, Z.; Wang, P. Hydration and mechanical properties of cement-marble powder system incorporating triisopropanolamine. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 266, 121068. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Zhao, Y.; Hu, X.; Shi, C.; Zhang, Z.; Zhu, D. A review on seawater sea-sand concrete: Mixture proportion, hydration, microstructure and properties. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 295, 123602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Jia, L.; Jia, Z.; Zhang, Z.; Tang, Z.; Wang, W.; Cao, R.; Zhang, Y. Effect of recycled brick powder with various particle features on early-age hydration, water state, and rheological properties of blended cement paste in the context of 3D Printing. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 418, 135428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Qiu, X.; Chen, W.; Yuan, J.; Shu, X.; Tan, X.; Wu, G.; Tian, H.; Cai, L. Study on early hydration and mechanical properties of ferrite-rich calcium sulfoaluminate cement-based grouting materials. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 411, 134324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Sun, C.; Zhang, J.; Yan, C.; Yin, L.; Wang, X.; Liu, S. Hydration characteristics of low carbon cementitious materials with multiple solid wastes. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 322, 126366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Stopic, S.; Dertmann, C.; Modolo, G.; Kegler, P.; Neumeier, S.; Kremer, D.; Wotruba, H.; Etzold, S.; Telle, R.; Rosani, D.; et al. Synthesis of magnesium carbonate via carbonation under high pressure in an autoclave. Metals 2018, 8, 993. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. BS EN 197-1; Cement–Composition, Specifications and Conformity Criteria for Common Cements. British Standards Institute: London, UK, 2011.
  86. BS EN 196-1; Methods of Testing Cement–Determination of Strength. Turkish Standards Institute: Ankara, Turkey, 2016.
  87. BS EN 196-6; Methods of Testing Cement–Determination of Fineness. BSI: New York, NY, USA, 2018. [CrossRef]
  88. Meng, J.; Zhao, Z.; Wang, X.; Wu, X.; Zheng, A.; Huang, Z.; Zhao, K.; Li, H. Effects of catalyst preparation parameters and reaction operating conditions on the activity and stability of thermally fused Fe-olivine catalyst in the steam reforming of toluene. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2018, 43, 127–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Genuchten, C.M.; Van Hamaekers, H.; Fraiquin, D.; Hollanders, S.; Ahmad, A. Heavy metal removal potential of olivine. Water Res. 2023, 245, 120583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Mo, L.; Deng, M.; Tang, M.; Al-Tabbaa, A. MgO expansive cement and concrete in China: Past, present and future. Cem. Concr. Res. 2014, 57, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Hay, R.; Celik, K. Hydration, carbonation, strength development and corrosion resistance of reactive MgO cement-based composites. Cem. Concr. Res. 2020, 128, 105941. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Djifack, J.E.; Kanouo, N.S.; Sabiha, A.B.; Hamadou, T.; Basua, E.A.A. Marbles and meta-schists from Bidzar (North Region of Cameroon): Characteristics and the use of meta-schists as additives in experimenting blended cements production. Eng. Res. Express 2024, 6, 045004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Li Yuanrui Ma, Y.; Shen, X.; Meng, Q.; Li, Y. Clinkering and hydration of alite-belite-ye’elimite cement with increasing ye’elimite percentage. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 426, 136224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Anirudh, M.; Rekha, K.S.; Venkatesh, C.; Nerella, R. Characterization of red mud based cement mortar; Mechanical and microstructure studies. Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 43, 1587–1591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Wang, F.; Dreisinger, D.; Jarvis, M.; Hitchins, T. Kinetic evaluation of mineral carbonation of natural silicate samples. Chem. Eng. J. 2021, 404, 126522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Bernasconi, D.; Viani, A.; Zárybnická, L.; Bordignon, S.; Godinho, J.R.A.; Maximenko, A.; Celikutku, C.; Jafri, S.F.; Borfecchia, E.; Wehrung, Q.; et al. Setting reaction of a olivine-based Mg-phosphate cement. Cem. Concr. Res. 2024, 186, 107694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Song, Q.; Su, J.; Nie, J.; Li, H.; Hu, Y.; Chen, Y.; Li, R.; Deng, Y. The occurrence of MgO and its influence on properties of clinker and cement: A review. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 293, 123494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Yan, X.; Tang, W.; Cui, H. Effect of MWCNTs-OH on the mechanical properties of cement composites: From macro to micro perspective. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 444, 137652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Sangadji, S. Can Self-healing Mechanism Helps Concrete Structures Sustainable? Procedia Eng. 2017, 171, 238–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Wang, Y.; He, F.; Wang, J.; Hu, Q. Comparison of effects of sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate on the hydration and properties of Portland cement paste. Materials 2019, 12, 1033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  101. Nemeş, N.S.; Negrea, A. Infrared and visible spectroscopy: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy. In Microbial Electrochemical Technologies: Fundamentals and Applications; John Wiley and Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2024; Volume 1–2, pp. 133–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. Xu, D.; Qi, G.; Wang, D.; Zhang, D.; Zhu, C.; Zhang, S.; Liu, Z. Phase evolution and microstructure changes induced by accelerated carbonation in natural hydraulic lime paste with GGBFS addition. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 448, 138256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Heinemann, R.; Kroll, H.; Kirfel, A.; Barbier, B. Order and anti-order in olivine I: Structural response to temperature. Eur. J. Mineral. 2006, 18, 673–689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Semberg, P.; Andersson, C.; Bjorkman, B. Interaction between iron oxides and olivine in magnetite pellets during reduction at 500°–1300°C. Miner. Metall. Process. 2014, 31, 126–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  105. Briki, Y.; Avet, F.; Zajac, M.; Bowen, P.; Haha, M.B.; Scrivener, K. Understanding of the factors slowing down metakaolin reaction in limestone calcined clay cement (LC3) at late ages. Cem. Concr. Res. 2021, 146, 106477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Andrade Neto, J.S.; de Matos, P.R.; De la Torre, A.G.; Campos, C.E.M.; Torres, S.M.; Monteiro, P.J.M.; Kirchheim, A.P. Hydration and interactions between pure and doped C3S and C3A in the presence of different calcium sulfates. Cem. Concr. Res. 2022, 159, 106893. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Li, P.; Jiang, Z.; An, X.; Maekawa, K.; Du, S. Time-dependent retardation effect of epoxy latexes on cement hydration: Experiments and multi-component hydration model. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 320, 126282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Gelli, R.; Tonelli, M.; Martini, F.; Calucci, L.; Borsacchi, S.; Ridi, F. Effect of borax on the hydration and setting of magnesium phosphate cements. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 348, 128686. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Xue, L.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, H. Early hydration kinetics and microstructure development of hybrid alkali activated cements (HAACs) at room temperature. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2021, 123, 104200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Özen, S.; Altun, M.G.; Yasin, M.; Yıldırım, M. 5 th International Conference on Applied Engineering and Natural Sciences. In Proceedings of the Silis Dumanı Kullanımının Kolemanit ve Kolemanit Atığı İçeren Harç Karışımların Dayanımına Etkisi, Konya, Turkey, 10–12 July 2023; pp. 996–1004. [Google Scholar]
  111. Mendoza Reales, O.A.; Dias Toledo Filho, R. A review on the chemical, mechanical and microstructural characterization of carbon nanotubes-cement based composites. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 154, 697–710. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  112. Seifi, S.; Levacher, D.; Razakamanantsoa, A.; Sebaibi, N. Microstructure of dry mortars without cement: Specific surface area, pore size and volume distribution analysis. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 5616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  113. Sun, Y.; Wang, K.Q.; Lee, H.S. Prediction of compressive strength development for blended cement mortar considering fly ash fineness and replacement ratio. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 271, 121532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  114. Damineli, B.L.; Pileggi, R.G.; Lagerblad, B.; John, V.M. Effects of Filler Mineralogy on the Compressive Strength of Cementitious Mortars. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 299, 124363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Materials 18 04212 g001
Figure 1. The 7-day XRD analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Figure 1. The 7-day XRD analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Materials 18 04212 g001
Materials 18 04212 g002
Figure 2. The 28-day XRD analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Figure 2. The 28-day XRD analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Materials 18 04212 g002
Materials 18 04212 g003
Figure 3. The 90-day XRD analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Figure 3. The 90-day XRD analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Materials 18 04212 g003
Materials 18 04212 g004
Figure 4. The 7-day FT-IR analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Figure 4. The 7-day FT-IR analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Materials 18 04212 g004
Materials 18 04212 g005
Figure 5. The 28-day FT-IR analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Figure 5. The 28-day FT-IR analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Materials 18 04212 g005
Materials 18 04212 g006
Figure 6. The 90-day FT-IR analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Figure 6. The 90-day FT-IR analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Materials 18 04212 g006
Materials 18 04212 g007
Figure 7. The 7-day thermal analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Figure 7. The 7-day thermal analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Materials 18 04212 g007
Materials 18 04212 g008
Figure 8. The 28-day thermal analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Figure 8. The 28-day thermal analyses of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Materials 18 04212 g008
Materials 18 04212 g009
Figure 9. The 90-day thermal analysis of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Figure 9. The 90-day thermal analysis of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Materials 18 04212 g009
Materials 18 04212 g010
Figure 10. The 7-day SEM and EDS analysis of Ref (a,d), 10Sub (b,e), and 20Sub (c,f) specimens.
Figure 10. The 7-day SEM and EDS analysis of Ref (a,d), 10Sub (b,e), and 20Sub (c,f) specimens.
Materials 18 04212 g010
Materials 18 04212 g011
Figure 11. The 28-day SEM and EDS analysis of Ref (a,d), 10Sub (b,e), and 20Sub (c,f) specimens.
Figure 11. The 28-day SEM and EDS analysis of Ref (a,d), 10Sub (b,e), and 20Sub (c,f) specimens.
Materials 18 04212 g011
Materials 18 04212 g012
Figure 12. The 90-day SEM and EDS analysis of Ref (a,d), 10Sub (b,e), and 20Sub (c,f) specimens.
Figure 12. The 90-day SEM and EDS analysis of Ref (a,d), 10Sub (b,e), and 20Sub (c,f) specimens.
Materials 18 04212 g012
Materials 18 04212 g013
Figure 13. The 7, 28, and 90-day compressive strength values of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Figure 13. The 7, 28, and 90-day compressive strength values of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Materials 18 04212 g013
Table 1. Mix proportions of cement mortars with olivine substitution.
Table 1. Mix proportions of cement mortars with olivine substitution.
PurposeResultsResearcher(s)
They investigated the usability of olivine aggregate in calcium lime mortars.They determined that olivine aggregate reacts with lime and carbon dioxide in humid environments to form dolomite within the mortar, thereby improving mechanical properties and increasing CO2 absorption capacity.[15]
They studied the CO2 capture efficiency of olivine aggregate in cement and lime mortars from the atmosphere.They found that between lime and cement mortars, lime mortars captured more CO2 and produced stable compounds.[18]
They researched the feasibility of utilizing volcanic slag in cement.They indicated that olivine and other mineralogical components in volcanic slag contained high levels of magnesium oxide (MgO), hematite (Fe2O3), calcium oxide (CaO), and titanium dioxide (TiO2), suggesting that volcanic slag less exposed to weathering conditions would be suitable as an additive in cement production. [19]
They characterized lightweight, olivine nano-silica-activated slag-fly ash composites.They discovered that using olivine nano-silica as an activator reduced carbon emissions by approximately 25%.[20]
They examined the performance of olivine in environments with low and high pH values.They determined that olivine enhances the leakage resistance of well wall cement through carbonation (CSH and CH), reacts with hydrochloric acid (HCl) aqueous solution at pH values between 1.0 and 1.92, and shows no significant reactivity in other liquids.[21]
They investigated the effects of olivine nano-silica addition on the mixture stability, rheology, and hydration degree of oil well cement.They found that olivine nano-silica accelerates oil well cement reactions and enhances mechanical properties.[22]
They studied the CO2 sequestration efficiency of Mg2+ ions obtained through olivine dissolution.They established that olivine applications would provide limited benefits during carbon remediation strategies, while the use of magnesium (Mg)-based cement would increase efficiency.[23]
They researched the potential use of silica recovered from olivine through an acid digestion process as an additive in cement.They determined that silica recovered from olivine improves the binding properties of cement and provides significant environmental benefits.[24]
They examined the behavior of mineral-added mortars under high-temperature conditions.They found that across all temperature values, the best results were obtained from specimens containing 10% basalt, pyrophyllite, and olivine.[25]
They developed and characterized the material properties of a highly dispersed colloidal olivine nano-silica (C-OnS).They discovered that C-OnS enhances the early-age performance of ultra-high-performance concrete due to its high silanol content, surface area, and dispersity.[26]
Table 2. Chemical analysis results of produced materials.
Table 2. Chemical analysis results of produced materials.
Specimen CaO (%)Fe2O3
(%)		Al2O3 (%)MgO (%)Na2O (%)K2O (%)SiO2 (%)SO3 (%)
Olivine3.189.45-46.20--38.14-
CEM IV 32.5 N62.572.564.601.530.260.6620.363.32
Table 3. Notation and blend information for olivine-substituted specimens.
Table 3. Notation and blend information for olivine-substituted specimens.
NotationSubstitution Rates
(%)		Water
(g)		Cement
(g)		Olivine
(g)		Standard Sand
(g)
Ref022545001350
10Sub1040545
20Sub2036090
Table 4. Experimental study data.
Table 4. Experimental study data.
ExperimentParameterStandard
Sieve analysisClassification according to material size[87]
Specific surface area (Blaine)Specific surface area[87]
Specific weightSpecific weight
Compressive strengthCompression[86]
XRDMineral phase analysis
FT-IRMaterial identification and verification
DTA-TGThermal analysis
SEMSurface morphology
EDSChemical composition
Table 5. Physical properties of the specimens.
Table 5. Physical properties of the specimens.
NotationGrain Size
>45 μm >90 μm
(%)		Specific Gravity
(g/cm3)		Blaine Specific Surface Area (cm2/g)
Ref0.01.22.953822
10Sub2.51.13.113720
20Sub3.81.73.113550
Table 6. Mass Loss of specimens between 16.5 °C and 1023.3 °C.
Table 6. Mass Loss of specimens between 16.5 °C and 1023.3 °C.
NotationTG Start
(mg)		TG End
(mg)		Mass Loss
(mg)		Mass Loss
(%)
Ref3815.153577.95237.206.22
10Sub6991.516531.44460.076.58
20Sub7976.787526.51450.275.64
Table 7. The 7-day EDS data of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Table 7. The 7-day EDS data of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Reference10Sub20Sub
ElementWeightAtomicOxideWeightAtomicOxideWeightAtomicOxide
(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)
C4.034.78CO214.623.513.19CO212.873.002.77CO29.56
Mg0.760.90-0.752.522.29-2.53----
Na--------6.906.36Na2O8.08
Al5.666.73Al2O310.602.212.00Al2O34.1710.469.65Al2O317.17
Si5.816.91SiO212.3213.7912.53SiO229.5531.6929.22SiO258.87
S1.321.57SO33.271.291.17SO33.21----
Ca33.8540.22CaO46.9431.7628.86CaO44.495.204.80CaO6.32
Fe8.119.64Fe2O311.502.222.02Fe2O33.18----
O24.6329.26-31.1852.7547.94-12.3751.2047.21-7.75
Table 8. The 28-day EDS data of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Table 8. The 28-day EDS data of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Reference10Sub20Sub
ElementWeightAtomicOxideWeightAtomicOxideWeightAtomicOxide
(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)
C3.072.87CO214.161.341.17CO26.085.595.48CO222.26
Mg----2.271.98-2.821.951.92-2.12
Al4.804.49Al2O311.412.672.33Al2O36.251.741.71Al2O33.58
Si15.7614.72SiO242.3812.1610.61SiO232.269.869.67SiO222.93
S----1.621.41SO35.011.541.51SO34.19
K7.757.23K2O11.730.520.27K2O0.90----
Ca11.5510.78CaO20.3125.6722.40CaO44.5428.4327.88CaO43.23
Fe----1.050.38Fe2O32.141.081.06Fe2O31.68
O64.1559.91-31.3567.0558.51-37.5151.7750.77-12.52
Table 9. The 90-day EDS data of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Table 9. The 90-day EDS data of Ref, 10Sub, and 20Sub specimens.
Reference10Sub20Sub
ElementWeightAtomicOxideWeightAtomicOxideWeightAtomicOxide
(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)(%)
Mg1.030.99-1.35----1.811.57-2.03
Al1.791.71Al2O34.410.150.17Al2O30.368.197.07Al2O317.33
Si6.836.51SiO219.049.3410.21SiO224.6516.6814.40SiO239.98
S0.810.78SO32.650.160.18SO30.500.820.71SO32.30
K----0.620.68K2O0.92----
Ca38.7836.99CaO70.7041.2645.11CaO71.2123.6920.46CaO37.14
Fe1.000.96Fe2O31.871.341.47Fe2O32.360.760.66Fe2O31.22
O54.5952.07-36.7638.5942.19-16.9863.8555.14-29.67
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Altuncı, Y.T.; Öcal, C. Assessment of Time-Dependent Hydration Products in Olivine-Substituted Cement Mortars. Materials 2025, 18, 4212. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18174212

AMA Style

Altuncı YT, Öcal C. Assessment of Time-Dependent Hydration Products in Olivine-Substituted Cement Mortars. Materials. 2025; 18(17):4212. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18174212

Chicago/Turabian Style

Altuncı, Yusuf Tahir, and Cenk Öcal. 2025. "Assessment of Time-Dependent Hydration Products in Olivine-Substituted Cement Mortars" Materials 18, no. 17: 4212. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18174212

APA Style

Altuncı, Y. T., & Öcal, C. (2025). Assessment of Time-Dependent Hydration Products in Olivine-Substituted Cement Mortars. Materials, 18(17), 4212. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18174212

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop