Protection Strategy against Spruce Budworm
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Description of Papers in This Special Issue
- 1
- Johns et al. [28] described a conceptual framework for an early intervention strategy against spruce budworm, including all of the core components needed for such a program to be viable. Early intervention and foliage protection strategies against spruce budworm are not necessarily mutually exclusive and core elements are relevant to population control for other insect pests that show hotspot outbreak dynamics [28]. Components required for a spruce budworm protection program to be successful include hotspot monitoring, population control, cost–benefit analyses, and proactive communications with stakeholders [28].
- 2
- MacLean et al. [29] reported positive results after five years of early intervention strategy trials conducted by a consortium of government, forest industry, researchers, and other partners. Following over 420,000 ha of treatments of low but increasing spruce budworm populations, second instar larvae (L2) levels across northern New Brunswick, Canada were considerably lower than populations in adjacent Québec [29]. Blocks treated with Bacillus thuringiensis or tebufenozide insecticide consistently had reduced budworm levels, generally did not require treatment in the subsequent year, and areas with moderate or higher L2 populations declined by over 90% reductions in 2018, while they continued to increase in Québec.
- 3
- Liu et al. [30] investigated the potential economic impacts of future spruce budworm outbreaks on 2.8 million ha of Crown land in New Brunswick and compared early intervention and foliage protection approaches. They found that timber harvest supply from 2017 to 2067 was projected to be reduced by 29 to 43 million m3 by uncontrolled moderate or severe budworm outbreaks, which would reduce total economic output by $25 billion (CAD) to $35 billion [30]. Depending upon outbreak severity, the early intervention strategy was projected to have benefit/cost ratios of 3.8 to 6.4 and net present values of $186 million to $353 million, both higher than foliage protection strategies [30].
- 4
- Régnière et al. [31] reported on detailed observations of the dynamics of low but rising spruce budworm populations, the target for early intervention. Results showed strong density-dependent survival between early larval stages and adult emergence, explained by natural enemy impacts and overcrowding, and inverse density-dependence of apparent fecundity, with a net immigration into lower-density populations and net emigration from higher populations at a threshold of about 25% defoliation [31]. This supported the conclusion that immigration, to elevate budworm above a threshold density of about four L4 larvae branch−1 was required for a population to increase to outbreak density [31], which helps set a target treatment density.
- 5
- Régnière and Nealis [32] found strong evidence of density-dependent emigration in both eastern and western spruce budworms, and concluded that migration was not random, but was density-dependent.
- 6
- Zhang et al. [33] tested the influence of a gradient of balsam fir-hardwood species composition on the defoliation of fir during the first five years of a spruce budworm outbreak. Fir defoliation was significantly lower as hardwood content increased, but the relationship varied with overall defoliation severity each year [33]. Results helped to set a fir-hardwood threshold below which insecticide protection is not used.
- 7
- Li et al. [34] used spatial autocorrelation analyses to determine patterns of spruce budworm defoliation of trees (clustered, dispersed, or random) and plots. About one-quarter to one-half of plots had significantly clustered defoliation, and data on plot-level defoliation and tree basal area were sufficient for modeling individual tree defoliation [34].
- 8
- Rahimzadeh-Bajgiran et al. [35] assessed the use of Landsat-5 and Landsat-MSS data to detect and map spruce budworm defoliation. A combination of three vegetation indices derived from Landsat data were able to detect and classify defoliation in three classes with an accuracy of 52%–77%.
- 9,10
- Régnière et al. [36] described the effects of temperature constraints in an individual-based model of spruce budworm moth migration that was parameterized with observations from moths captured in traps or observed migrating under field conditions. A related paper [37] incorporated crepuscular (evening) circadian rhythms of moth flight activity as influenced by evening temperatures into the model. Given the importance of density-dependent emigration [32] and the requirement for moth immigration to elevate budworm above a threshold for outbreak initiation [31], methods to model and map moth flights are important for budworm monitoring for early intervention.
- 11
- Régnière et al. [38] reported results of trials of aerial applications of a registered formulation of synthetic spruce budworm female sex pheromone to disrupt mating in populations. Although the pheromone application reduced the capture of male budworm moths in pheromone-baited traps by 90% and reduced mating success of virgin females held in individual cages at mid-crown, results showed that populations of eggs or overwintering larvae in the following generation were not reduced, possibly because of the immigration of mated females [38].
- 12
- Quiring et al. [39] tested the influence of a foliar endophyte and budburst phenology on budworm survival. Survival of budworm larvae to pupation and to adult emergence was 13%–17% lower on endophyte positive trees, suggesting that endopytes inoculated into spruce seedlings could limit the spruce budworm population as part of an early intervention strategy [39].
3. Conclusions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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MacLean, D.A. Protection Strategy against Spruce Budworm. Forests 2019, 10, 1137. https://doi.org/10.3390/f10121137
MacLean DA. Protection Strategy against Spruce Budworm. Forests. 2019; 10(12):1137. https://doi.org/10.3390/f10121137
Chicago/Turabian StyleMacLean, David A. 2019. "Protection Strategy against Spruce Budworm" Forests 10, no. 12: 1137. https://doi.org/10.3390/f10121137