Forests

19 pages, 1667 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon Footprint and Economic Trade-Offs in Traditional Greek Silvopastoral Systems: An Integrated Life Cycle Assessment Approach

by Emmanouil Tziolas, Andreas Papadopoulos, Vasiliki Lappa, Georgios Bakogiorgos, Stavroula Galanopoulou, María Rosa Mosquera-Losada and Anastasia Pantera

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1262; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081262 (registering DOI) - 2 Aug 2025

Abstract

Silvopastoral systems, though ecologically beneficial, remain underrepresented in the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy and are seldom studied in Mediterranean contexts. The current study assesses both the environmental and economic aspects of five typical silvopastoral systems in central Greece, encompassing cattle, sheep, and [...] Read more.

Silvopastoral systems, though ecologically beneficial, remain underrepresented in the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy and are seldom studied in Mediterranean contexts. The current study assesses both the environmental and economic aspects of five typical silvopastoral systems in central Greece, encompassing cattle, sheep, and goat farming. A Life Cycle Assessment approach was implemented to quantify greenhouse gas emissions using economic allocation, distributing impacts between milk and meat outputs. Enteric fermentation was the major emission source, accounting for up to 65.14% of total emissions in beef-based systems, while feeding and soil emissions were more prominent in mixed and small ruminant systems. Total farm-level emissions ranged from 60,609 to 273,579 kg CO₂eq per year. Economically, only beef-integrated systems achieved an average annual profitability above EUR 20,000 per farm, based on financial data averaged over the last five years (2020–2024) from selected case studies in central Greece, while the remaining systems fell below the national poverty threshold for an average household, underscoring concerns about their economic viability. The findings underline the dual challenges of economic viability and policy neglect, stressing the need for targeted support if these multifunctional systems are to add value to EU climate goals and rural sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forestry in the Contemporary Bioeconomy)

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19 pages, 977 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical-Hydric Properties of a Planosols Under Long-Term Integrated Crop–Livestock–Forest System in the Brazilian Semiarid

by Valter Silva Ferreira, Flávio Pereira de Oliveira, Pedro Luan Ferreira da Silva, Adriana Ferreira Martins, Walter Esfrain Pereira, Djail Santos, Tancredo Augusto Feitosa de Souza, Robson Vinício dos Santos and Milton César Costa Campos

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1261; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081261 (registering DOI) - 2 Aug 2025

Abstract

The objective of this study was to evaluate the physical-hydric properties of a Planosol under an Integrated Crop–Livestock–Forest (ICLF) system in the Agreste region of Paraíba, Brazil, after eight years of implementation, and to compare them with areas under a conventional cropping system [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the physical-hydric properties of a Planosol under an Integrated Crop–Livestock–Forest (ICLF) system in the Agreste region of Paraíba, Brazil, after eight years of implementation, and to compare them with areas under a conventional cropping system and secondary native vegetation. The experiment was conducted at the experimental station located in Alagoinha, in the Agreste mesoregion of the State of Paraíba, Brazil. The experimental design adopted was a randomized block design (RBD) with five treatments and four replications (5 × 4 + 2). The treatments consisted of: (1) Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Steud) + Signal grass (Urochloa decumbens) (GL+SG); (2) Sabiá (Mimosa caesalpiniaefolia Benth) + Signal grass (SB+SG); (3) Purple Ipê (Handroanthus avellanedae (Lorentz ex Griseb.) Mattos) + SG (I+SG); (4) annual crop + SG (C+SG); and (5) Signal grass (SG). Two additional treatments were included for statistical comparison: a conventional cropping system (CC) and a secondary native vegetation area (NV), both located near the experimental site. The CC treatment showed the lowest bulk density (1.23 g cm⁻³) and the lowest degree of compaction (66.3%) among the evaluated treatments, as well as a total porosity (TP) higher than 75% (0.75 m³ m⁻³). In the soil under the integration system, the lowest bulk density (1.38 g cm⁻³) and the highest total porosity (0.48 m³ m⁻³) were observed in the SG treatment at the 0.0–0.10 m depth. High S-index values (>0.035) and a low relative field capacity (RFc < 0.50) and K_θ indicate high structural quality and low soil water storage capacity. It was concluded that the SG, I+SG, SB+SG, and CC treatments presented the highest values of soil bulk and degree of compaction in the layers below 0.10 m. The I+SG and C+SG treatments showed the lowest hydraulic conductivities and macroaggregation. The SG and C+SG treatments had the lowest available water content and available water capacity across the three analyzed soil layers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soil Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties)

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19 pages, 1636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Persistence of Phytoplasma and Control Efficacy of Oxytetracycline Tree Injection for Elaeocarpus sylvestris (Lour.) Poir. var. ellipticus (Thunb.) H.Hara Decline Disease

by Geon-Woo Lee, Kyung-Don Kang, Yeong-Don Lee, Sun-Keun Lee and Sang-Sub Han

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1260; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081260 (registering DOI) - 1 Aug 2025

Abstract

Elaeocarpus sylvestris (Lour.) Poir. var. ellipticus (Thunb.) H.Hara, an evergreen tree species native to Jeju Island, South Korea, has experienced a progressive decline associated with phytoplasma infection. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of oxytetracycline-based tree injection for suppressing phytoplasma and improving [...] Read more.

Elaeocarpus sylvestris (Lour.) Poir. var. ellipticus (Thunb.) H.Hara, an evergreen tree species native to Jeju Island, South Korea, has experienced a progressive decline associated with phytoplasma infection. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of oxytetracycline-based tree injection for suppressing phytoplasma and improving tree vitality. Two formulations—oxytetracycline hydrochloride (4.3%) and oxytetracycline calcium alkyltrimethyl ammonium (17%)—were administered to 40 infected individuals across two sites using a gravity-fed injection system. Treatment efficacy was evaluated based on chlorophyll content as an indicator of physiological recovery, while phytoplasma presence was assessed by PCR at 150 days after injection. The oxytetracycline hydrochloride group showed the highest suppression, with a 70% phytoplasma non-detection rate as determined by PCR analysis. Treated trees exhibited significantly higher chlorophyll content compared to untreated infected controls. These findings suggest that minimally invasive tree injection using oxytetracycline can provide temporary suppression of phytoplasma and support physiological recovery in E. sylvestris. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Pathogen Detection, Diagnosis and Control)

25 pages, 6358 KiB

Open AccessArticle

First Assessment of the Biodiversity of True Slime Molds in Swamp Forest Stands of the Knyszyn Forest (Northeast Poland) Using the Moist Chambers Detection Method

by Tomasz Pawłowicz, Igor Żebrowski, Gabriel Michał Micewicz, Monika Puchlik, Konrad Wilamowski, Krzysztof Sztabkowski and Tomasz Oszako

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1259; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081259 (registering DOI) - 1 Aug 2025

Abstract

True slime molds (Eumycetozoa) remain under-explored globally, particularly in water-logged forest habitats. Despite evidence suggesting a high biodiversity potential in the Knyszyn Forest of north-eastern Poland, no systematic effort had previously been undertaken there. In the present survey, plant substrates from [...] Read more.

True slime molds (Eumycetozoa) remain under-explored globally, particularly in water-logged forest habitats. Despite evidence suggesting a high biodiversity potential in the Knyszyn Forest of north-eastern Poland, no systematic effort had previously been undertaken there. In the present survey, plant substrates from eight swampy sub-compartments were incubated for over four months, resulting in the detection of fifteen slime mold species. Four of these taxa are newly reported for northern and north-eastern Poland, while several have been recorded only a handful of times in the global literature. These findings underscore how damp, nutrient-rich conditions foster Eumycetozoa and demonstrate the effectiveness of moist-chamber culturing in revealing rare or overlooked taxa. Current evidence shows that, although slime molds may occasionally colonize living plant or fungal tissues, their influence on crop productivity and tree vitality is negligible; they are therefore better regarded as biodiversity indicators than as pathogens or pests. By establishing a replicable framework for studying water-logged environments worldwide, this work highlights the ecological importance of swamp forests in sustaining microbial and slime mold diversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Detection and Identification of Insect Pests and Pathogens: 2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 1141 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coordinated Roles of Osmotic Adjustment, Antioxidant Defense, and Ion Homeostasis in the Salt Tolerance of Mulberry (Morus alba L. ‘Tailai Sang’) Seedlings

by Nan Xu, Tiane Wang, Yuan Wang, Juexian Dong and Yu Shaopeng

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1258; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081258 (registering DOI) - 1 Aug 2025

Abstract

Soil salinization severely limits plant growth and productivity. Mulberry (Morus alba L.), an economically and ecologically important tree, is widely cultivated, yet its salt-tolerance mechanisms at the seedling stage remain insufficiently understood. This study investigated the physiological and biochemical responses of two-year-old [...] Read more.

Soil salinization severely limits plant growth and productivity. Mulberry (Morus alba L.), an economically and ecologically important tree, is widely cultivated, yet its salt-tolerance mechanisms at the seedling stage remain insufficiently understood. This study investigated the physiological and biochemical responses of two-year-old mulberry (‘Tailai Sang’) seedlings subjected to six NaCl treatments (0, 50, 100, 150, 200, and 300 mmol L⁻¹) for 28 days. Results showed that growth parameters and photosynthetic gas exchange exhibited dose-dependent declines. The reduction in net photosynthetic rate (Pn) was attributed to both stomatal limitations (decreased stomatal conductance) and non-stomatal limitations, as evidenced by a significant decrease in the maximum quantum efficiency of photosystem II (Fv/Fm) under high salinity. To cope with osmotic stress, seedlings accumulated compatible solutes, including soluble sugars, proteins, and proline. Critically, mulberry seedlings demonstrated effective ion homeostasis by sequestering Na⁺ in the roots to maintain a high K⁺/Na⁺ ratio in leaves, a mechanism that was compromised above 150 mmol L⁻¹. Concurrently, indicators of oxidative stress—malondialdehyde (MDA) and H₂O₂—rose significantly with salinity, inducing the activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, APX, and GR), which peaked at 150 mmol L⁻¹ before declining under extreme stress. A biomass-based LC₅₀ of 179 mmol L⁻¹ NaCl was determined. These findings elucidate that mulberry salt tolerance is a coordinated process involving three key mechanisms: osmotic adjustment, selective ion distribution, and a robust antioxidant defense system. This study establishes an indicative tolerance threshold under controlled conditions and provides a physiological basis for further field-based evaluations of ‘Tailai Sang’ mulberry for cultivation on saline soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive Mechanisms of Tree Seedlings to Adapt to Stress—Second Edition)

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20 pages, 1205 KiB

Open AccessReview

Patterns in Root Phenology of Woody Plants Across Climate Regions: Drivers, Constraints, and Ecosystem Implications

by Qiwen Guo, Boris Rewald, Hans Sandén and Douglas L. Godbold

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1257; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081257 (registering DOI) - 1 Aug 2025

Abstract

Root phenology significantly influences ecosystem processes yet remains poorly characterized across biomes. This study synthesized data from 59 studies spanning Arctic to tropical ecosystems to identify woody plants root phenological patterns and their environmental drivers. The analysis revealed distinct climate-specific patterns. Arctic regions [...] Read more.

Root phenology significantly influences ecosystem processes yet remains poorly characterized across biomes. This study synthesized data from 59 studies spanning Arctic to tropical ecosystems to identify woody plants root phenological patterns and their environmental drivers. The analysis revealed distinct climate-specific patterns. Arctic regions had a short growing season with remarkably low temperature threshold for initiation of root growth (0.5–1 °C). Temperate forests displayed pronounced spring-summer growth patterns with root growth initiation occurring at 1–9 °C. Mediterranean ecosystems showed bimodal patterns optimized around moisture availability, and tropical regions demonstrate seasonality primarily driven by precipitation. Root-shoot coordination varies predictably across biomes, with humid continental ecosystems showing the highest synchronous above- and belowground activity (57%), temperate regions exhibiting leaf-before-root emergence (55%), and Mediterranean regions consistently showing root-before-leaf patterns (100%). Winter root growth is more widespread than previously recognized (35% of studies), primarily in tropical and Mediterranean regions. Temperature thresholds for phenological transitions vary with climate region, suggesting adaptations to environmental conditions. These findings provide a critical, region-specific framework for improving models of terrestrial ecosystem responses to climate change. While our synthesis clarifies distinct phenological strategies, its conclusions are drawn from data focused primarily on Northern Hemisphere woody plants, highlighting significant geographic gaps in our current understanding. Bridging these knowledge gaps is essential for accurately forecasting how belowground dynamics will influence global carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, and ecosystem resilience under changing climatic regimes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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19 pages, 1721 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Demography and Biomass Productivity in Colombian Sub-Andean Forests in Cueva de los Guácharos National Park (Huila): A Comparison Between Primary and Secondary Forests

by Laura I. Ramos, Cecilia M. Prada and Pablo R. Stevenson

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1256; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081256 (registering DOI) - 1 Aug 2025

Abstract

Understanding species composition and forest dynamics is essential for predicting biomass productivity and informing conservation in tropical montane ecosystems. We evaluated floristic, demographic, and biomass changes in eighteen 0.1 ha permanent plots in the Colombian Sub-Andean forest, including both primary (ca. 60 y [...] Read more.

Understanding species composition and forest dynamics is essential for predicting biomass productivity and informing conservation in tropical montane ecosystems. We evaluated floristic, demographic, and biomass changes in eighteen 0.1 ha permanent plots in the Colombian Sub-Andean forest, including both primary (ca. 60 y old) and secondary forests (ca. 30 years old). Two censuses of individuals (DBH ≥ 2.5 cm) were conducted over 7–13 years. We recorded 516 species across 202 genera and 89 families. Floristic composition differed significantly between forest types (PERMANOVA, p = 0.001), and black oak (Trigonobalanus excelsa Lozano, Hern. Cam. & Henao) forests formed distinct assemblages. Demographic rates were higher in secondary forests, with mortality (4.17% yr), recruitment (4.51% yr), and relative growth rate (0.02% yr) exceeding those of primary forests. The mean aboveground biomass accumulation and the rate of annual change were higher in primary forests (447.5 Mg ha⁻¹ and 466.8 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, respectively) than in secondary forests (217.2 Mg ha⁻¹ and 217.2 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, respectively). Notably, black oak forests showed the greatest biomass accumulation and rate of change in biomass. Annual net biomass production was higher in secondary forests (8.72 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) than in primary forests (5.66 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). These findings highlight the ecological distinctiveness and recovery potential of secondary Sub-Andean forests and underscore the value of multitemporal monitoring to understand forest resilience and assess vulnerability to environmental change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Inventory: The Monitoring of Biomass and Carbon Stocks)

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22 pages, 3015 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determining Early Warning Thresholds to Detect Tree Mortality Risk in a Southeastern U.S. Bottomland Hardwood Wetland

by Maricar Aguilos, Jiayin Zhang, Miko Lorenzo Belgado, Ge Sun, Steve McNulty and John King

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1255; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081255 (registering DOI) - 1 Aug 2025

Abstract

Prolonged inundations are altering coastal forest ecosystems of the southeastern US, causing extensive tree die-offs and the development of ghost forests. This hydrological stressor also alters carbon fluxes, threatening the stability of coastal carbon sinks. This study was conducted to investigate the interactions [...] Read more.

Prolonged inundations are altering coastal forest ecosystems of the southeastern US, causing extensive tree die-offs and the development of ghost forests. This hydrological stressor also alters carbon fluxes, threatening the stability of coastal carbon sinks. This study was conducted to investigate the interactions between hydrological drivers and ecosystem responses by analyzing daily eddy covariance flux data from a wetland forest in North Carolina, USA, spanning 2009–2019. We analyzed temporal patterns of net ecosystem exchange (NEE), gross primary productivity (GPP), and ecosystem respiration (RE) under both flooded and non-flooded conditions and evaluated their relationships with observed tree mortality. Generalized Additive Modeling (GAM) revealed that groundwater table depth (GWT), leaf area index (LAI), NEE, and net radiation (Rn) were key predictors of mortality transitions (R² = 0.98). Elevated GWT induces root anoxia; declining LAI reduces productivity; elevated NEE signals physiological breakdown; and higher Rn may amplify evapotranspiration stress. Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis revealed critical early warning thresholds for tree mortality: GWT = 2.23 cm, LAI = 2.99, NEE = 1.27 g C m⁻² d⁻¹, and Rn = 167.54 W m⁻². These values offer a basis for forecasting forest mortality risk and guiding early warning systems. Our findings highlight the dominant role of hydrological variability in ecosystem degradation and offer a threshold-based framework for early detection of mortality risks. This approach provides insights into managing coastal forest resilience amid accelerating sea level rise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water and Carbon Cycles and Their Coupling in Forest)

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26 pages, 1103 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How to Compensate Forest Ecosystem Services Through Restorative Justice: An Analysis Based on Typical Cases in China

by Haoran Gao and Tenglong Lin

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1254; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081254 (registering DOI) - 1 Aug 2025

Abstract

The ongoing degradation of global forests has severely weakened ecosystem service functions, and traditional judicial remedies have struggled to quantify intangible ecological losses. China has become an important testing ground for restorative justice through the establishment of specialized environmental courts and the practice [...] Read more.

The ongoing degradation of global forests has severely weakened ecosystem service functions, and traditional judicial remedies have struggled to quantify intangible ecological losses. China has become an important testing ground for restorative justice through the establishment of specialized environmental courts and the practice of environmental public interest litigation. Since 2015, China has actively explored and institutionalized the application of the concept of restorative justice in its environmental justice reform. This concept emphasizes compensating environmental damages through actual ecological restoration acts rather than relying solely on financial compensation. This shift reflects a deep understanding of the limitations of traditional environmental justice and an institutional response to China’s ecological civilization construction, providing critical support for forest ecosystem restoration and enabling ecological restoration activities, such as replanting and re-greening, habitat reconstruction, etc., to be enforced through judicial decisions. This study conducts a qualitative analysis of judicial rulings in forest restoration cases to systematically evaluate the effectiveness of restorative justice in compensating for losses in forest ecosystem service functions. The findings reveal the following: (1) restoration measures in judicial practice are disconnected from the types of ecosystem services available; (2) non-market values and long-term cumulative damages are systematically underestimated, with monitoring mechanisms exhibiting fragmented implementation and insufficient effectiveness; (3) management cycles are set in violation of ecological restoration principles, and acceptance standards lack function-oriented indicators; (4) participation of key stakeholders is severely lacking, and local knowledge and professional expertise have not been integrated. In response, this study proposes a restorative judicial framework oriented toward forest ecosystem services, utilizing four mechanisms: independent recognition of legal interests, function-matched restoration, application of scientific assessment tools, and multi-stakeholder collaboration. This framework aims to drive a paradigm shift from formal restoration to substantive functional recovery, providing theoretical support and practical pathways for environmental judicial reform and global forest governance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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32 pages, 5440 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatially Explicit Tactical Planning for Redwood Harvest Optimization Under Continuous Cover Forestry in New Zealand’s North Island

by Horacio E. Bown, Francesco Latterini, Rodolfo Picchio and Michael S. Watt

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1253; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081253 (registering DOI) - 1 Aug 2025

Abstract

Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb. ex D. Don) Endl.) is a fast-growing, long-lived conifer native to a narrow coastal zone along the western seaboard of the United States. Redwood can accumulate very high amounts of carbon in plantation settings and continuous cover forestry [...] Read more.

Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb. ex D. Don) Endl.) is a fast-growing, long-lived conifer native to a narrow coastal zone along the western seaboard of the United States. Redwood can accumulate very high amounts of carbon in plantation settings and continuous cover forestry (CCF) represents a highly profitable option, particularly for small-scale forest growers in the North Island of New Zealand. We evaluated the profitability of conceptual CCF regimes using two case study forests: Blue Mountain (109 ha, Taranaki Region, New Zealand) and Spring Creek (467 ha, Manawatu-Whanganui Region, New Zealand). We ran a strategic harvest scheduling model for both properties and used its results to guide a tactical-spatially explicit model harvesting small 0.7 ha units over a period that spanned 35 to 95 years after planting. The internal rates of return (IRRs) were 9.16 and 10.40% for Blue Mountain and Spring Creek, respectively, exceeding those considered robust for other forest species in New Zealand. The study showed that small owners could benefit from carbon revenue during the first 35 years after planting and then switch to a steady annual income from timber, maintaining a relatively constant carbon stock under a continuous cover forestry regime. Implementing adjacency constraints with a minimum green-up period of five years proved feasible. Although small coupes posed operational problems, which were linked to roading and harvesting, these issues were not insurmountable and could be managed with appropriate operational planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Operations and Engineering)

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15 pages, 5769 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Higher Winter Precipitation and Temperature Are Associated with Smaller Earlywood Vessel Size but Wider Latewood Width in Quercus faginea Lam.

by Ignacio García-González, Filipe Campelo, Joana Vieira and Cristina Nabais

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1252; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081252 - 1 Aug 2025

Abstract

Quercus faginea Lam., a winter-deciduous oak native to the Iberian Peninsula, typically grows under a Mediterranean climate. To identify the main drivers influencing radial wood increment, we analyzed the climatic signals in tree-ring width and wood anatomical traits using increment cores. Winter conditions [...] Read more.

Quercus faginea Lam., a winter-deciduous oak native to the Iberian Peninsula, typically grows under a Mediterranean climate. To identify the main drivers influencing radial wood increment, we analyzed the climatic signals in tree-ring width and wood anatomical traits using increment cores. Winter conditions influenced both latewood width and earlywood vessel size in the first row. Latewood was positively correlated with precipitation and temperature, with the long-term positive effect of winter water supply supported by SPEI. In contrast, vessel size showed negative correlations, also reflecting a long-term negative effect of winter precipitation. Consequently, conditions that enhanced latewood width and overall tree-ring growth appear to be associated with the formation of smaller earlywood vessels. Although ample winter precipitation replenishes soil water reserves and supports prolonged wood formation, it may also induce anaerobic soil conditions that promote root fermentation, depleting carbohydrates needed for cell turgor and expansion, and ultimately regulating earlywood vessel size. This physiological decoupling may help explain the lack of a significant correlation between latewood width and earlywood vessel size, underscoring their independent responses to environmental influences. Our findings highlighted the complex interplay between various climatic conditions affecting Q. faginea, with implications for understanding its adaptive capacity in changing climates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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20 pages, 2327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Climate Liability to Market Opportunity: Valuing Carbon Sequestration and Storage Services in the Forest-Based Sector

by Attila Borovics, Éva Király, Péter Kottek, Gábor Illés and Endre Schiberna

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1251; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081251 - 1 Aug 2025

Abstract

Ecosystem services—the benefits humans derive from nature—are foundational to environmental sustainability and economic well-being, with carbon sequestration and storage standing out as critical regulating services in the fight against climate change. This study presents a comprehensive financial valuation of the carbon sequestration, storage [...] Read more.

Ecosystem services—the benefits humans derive from nature—are foundational to environmental sustainability and economic well-being, with carbon sequestration and storage standing out as critical regulating services in the fight against climate change. This study presents a comprehensive financial valuation of the carbon sequestration, storage and product substitution ecosystem services provided by the Hungarian forest-based sector. Using a multi-scenario framework, four complementary valuation concepts are assessed: total carbon storage (biomass, soil, and harvested wood products), annual net sequestration, emissions avoided through material and energy substitution, and marketable carbon value under voluntary carbon market (VCM) and EU Carbon Removal Certification Framework (CRCF) mechanisms. Data sources include the National Forestry Database, the Hungarian Greenhouse Gas Inventory, and national estimates on substitution effects and soil carbon stocks. The total carbon stock of Hungarian forests is estimated at 1289 million tons of CO₂ eq, corresponding to a theoretical climate liability value of over EUR 64 billion. Annual sequestration is valued at approximately 380 million EUR/year, while avoided emissions contribute an additional 453 million EUR/year in mitigation benefits. A comparative analysis of two mutually exclusive crediting strategies—improved forest management projects (IFMs) avoiding final harvesting versus long-term carbon storage through the use of harvested wood products—reveals that intensified harvesting for durable wood use offers higher revenue potential (up to 90 million EUR/year) than non-harvesting IFM scenarios. These findings highlight the dual role of forests as both carbon sinks and sources of climate-smart materials and call for policy frameworks that integrate substitution benefits and long-term storage opportunities in support of effective climate and bioeconomy strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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15 pages, 3443 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Potential of Cuscuta japonica as Biological Control Agent for Derris trifoliata Management in Mangrove Forests

by Huiying Wu, Yunhong Xue and Wenai Liu

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1250; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081250 - 1 Aug 2025

Abstract

Climbing vines have recently induced increasing threats to forest growth under favourable environmental changes. In mangrove forests, the native vine Derris trifoliata became invasive and is now one of the main threats. Yet current management relies on manual removal with low efficiency. Exploring [...] Read more.

Climbing vines have recently induced increasing threats to forest growth under favourable environmental changes. In mangrove forests, the native vine Derris trifoliata became invasive and is now one of the main threats. Yet current management relies on manual removal with low efficiency. Exploring an alternative, cost-effective method is required. To assess the potential of a proposed biological control method, this study performed a pot-plant experiment using Cuscuta japonica to infect D. trifoliata and three common mangrove species in Beihai, China. Results showed that D. trifoliata had a higher infection rate and high host mortality (90%) than mangrove (0%). It also had significantly decreased moisture by 4%, nitrogen by 14%, phosphorus by 27%, potassium by 49% and increased soluble sugar by 49% and protein by 20%, whereas only moisture (2% reduction) and one or two minerals of Excoecaria agallocha and Aegiceras corniculatum were influenced. Only Kandelia obovata had neither effective haustoria nor any nutrients impact from the infection. This study indicated that C. japonica can cause more damage to D. trifoliata than to mangrove species and has the potential to be used as a biological control agent for the threatened mangrove forests of A. corniculatum and K. obovata with monitoring and control. Further field tests are required to bring this method into practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Invasive Species: Distribution, Control and Management)

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31 pages, 2831 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Diversity and Biodiversity of Forest and Hedgerow in Areas Managed for Pheasant Shooting Across the UK

by Peter R. Long, Leo Petrokofsky, William J. Harvey, Paul Orsi, Matthew W. Jordon and Gillian Petrokofsky

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1249; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081249 - 1 Aug 2025

Abstract

Management for pheasant shooting is a widespread land use in the UK, with potential implications for forest and hedgerow habitats. This study evaluates whether sites managed for pheasant shooting differ ecologically from similar sites not used for shooting. A systematic evidence evaluation of [...] Read more.

Management for pheasant shooting is a widespread land use in the UK, with potential implications for forest and hedgerow habitats. This study evaluates whether sites managed for pheasant shooting differ ecologically from similar sites not used for shooting. A systematic evidence evaluation of comparative studies was combined with a spatial analysis using remote sensing data (2010–2024). The literature review identified only 32 studies meeting strict criteria for comparability, revealing inconsistent and often weak evidence, with few studies reporting detailed forest management or statistically robust outcomes. While some studies noted increased or decreased biodiversity associated with pheasant shooting, the evidence base was generally of low quality. Remote sensing assessed forest structural and spectral diversity, intactness, and hedgerow density across 1131 pheasant-managed and 1131 matched control sites. Biodiversity data for birds, plants, and butterflies were sourced from GBIF records. Structural diversity and hedgerow density were significantly higher on pheasant-managed sites, while no significant differences were found in forest spectral diversity, intactness, or biodiversity indicators. Pheasant management may shape certain habitat features but has limited demonstrable effects on overall biodiversity. Further field-based, controlled studies are required to understand causal mechanisms and inform ecologically sustainable shooting practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functions in Forests)

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25 pages, 10331 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Forest Fire Detection Method Based on Dual-Branch Multi-Scale Adaptive Feature Fusion Network

by Qinggan Wu, Chen Wei, Ning Sun, Xiong Xiong, Qingfeng Xia, Jianmeng Zhou and Xingyu Feng

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1248; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081248 - 31 Jul 2025

Abstract

There are significant scale and morphological differences between fire and smoke features in forest fire detection. This paper proposes a detection method based on dual-branch multi-scale adaptive feature fusion network (DMAFNet). In this method, convolutional neural network (CNN) and transformer are used to [...] Read more.

There are significant scale and morphological differences between fire and smoke features in forest fire detection. This paper proposes a detection method based on dual-branch multi-scale adaptive feature fusion network (DMAFNet). In this method, convolutional neural network (CNN) and transformer are used to form a dual-branch backbone network to extract local texture and global context information, respectively. In order to overcome the difference in feature distribution and response scale between the two branches, a feature correction module (FCM) is designed. Through space and channel correction mechanisms, the adaptive alignment of two branch features is realized. The Fusion Feature Module (FFM) is further introduced to fully integrate dual-branch features based on the two-way cross-attention mechanism and effectively suppress redundant information. Finally, the Multi-Scale Fusion Attention Unit (MSFAU) is designed to enhance the multi-scale detection capability of fire targets. Experimental results show that the proposed DMAFNet has significantly improved in mAP (mean average precision) indicators compared with existing mainstream detection methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Natural Hazards and Risk Management)

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21 pages, 1724 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Climate Change Mitigation ODA Improved the Human Development Index but Had a Limited Impact on Greenhouse Gas Mitigation

by Hyunyoung Yang, Jeongyeon Chae and Eunho Choi

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1247; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081247 - 31 Jul 2025

Abstract

Climate change mitigation Official Development Assistance (ODA) primarily aims to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in developing countries while also seeking to enhance human welfare as a fundamental goal of development aid. This study investigates whether climate mitigation ODA contributes to achieving the [...] Read more.

Climate change mitigation Official Development Assistance (ODA) primarily aims to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in developing countries while also seeking to enhance human welfare as a fundamental goal of development aid. This study investigates whether climate mitigation ODA contributes to achieving the principles of the doughnut framework—staying within the ecological ceiling (mitigating GHG emissions) while meeting the social foundation (enhancing human development index, HDI). We analyzed data from 77 developing countries between 2010 and 2020, including subgroup analyses by income level (high-, middle-, and low-income groups), using an instrumental variable–fixed effect approach. The results show that climate change mitigation ODA significantly improved the HDI but had no impact on reducing overall GHG emissions, including fossil fuel-based and land use change and forestry-based mitigations. When disaggregated by income level, ODA was found to improve the HDI and reduce fossil fuel-based GHG emission in low-income countries; however, these effects weakened as income levels increased. Across all income groups, there was no significant reduction in GHG emissions resulting from land use change or forestry. These findings suggest that climate change mitigation ODA can yield a greater impact when prioritized for low-income countries and that current ODA strategies for addressing GHG emissions related to land use change and forestry should be reconsidered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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16 pages, 2125 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Quantitative Literature Review on Forest-Based Practices for Human Well-Being

by Alessandro Paletto, Sofia Baldessari, Elena Barbierato, Iacopo Bernetti, Arianna Cerutti, Stefania Righi, Beatrice Ruggieri, Alessandra Landi, Sandra Notaro and Sandro Sacchelli

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1246; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081246 - 30 Jul 2025

Abstract

Over the last decade, the scientific community has increasingly focused on forest-based practices for human well-being (FBPW), a term that includes all forest activities (e.g., forest bathing, forest therapy, social outdoor initiatives) important for improving people’s health and emotional status. This paper aims [...] Read more.

Over the last decade, the scientific community has increasingly focused on forest-based practices for human well-being (FBPW), a term that includes all forest activities (e.g., forest bathing, forest therapy, social outdoor initiatives) important for improving people’s health and emotional status. This paper aims to develop a quantitative literature review on FBPW based on big data analysis (text mining on Scopus title and abstract) and PRISMA evaluation. The two techniques facilitate investigations across different geographic areas (major areas and geographical regions) and allow a focus on various topics. The results of text mining highlight the prominence of publications on FBPW for the improvement of human health in East Asia (e.g., Japan and South Korea). Furthermore, some specific themes developed by the literature for each geographical area emerge: urban green areas, cities, and parks in Africa; sustainable forest management and planning in the Americas; empirical studies on physiological and psychological effects of FBPW in Asia; and forest management and FBPW in Europe. PRISMA indicates a gap in studies focused on the reciprocal influences of forest variables and well-being responses. An investigation of the main physiological indicators applied in the scientific literature for the theme is also developed. The main strengths and weaknesses of the method are discussed, with suggestions for potential future lines of research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social and Cultural Benefits of Forests Contributing to Human Health and Well-Being)

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14 pages, 2651 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conifer Growth Patterns in Primary Succession Locations at Mount St. Helens

by Alicia Rose, Cody Blackketter, Marisa D. Fisher, Carri J. LeRoy and Dylan G. Fischer

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1245; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081245 - 30 Jul 2025

Abstract

The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens (WA, USA) presented a unique opportunity to observe primary succession in a post-eruption landscape previously dominated by conifer forests. The eruption scoured soil and biological communities adjacent to the mountain, and species of conifers have generally [...] Read more.

The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens (WA, USA) presented a unique opportunity to observe primary succession in a post-eruption landscape previously dominated by conifer forests. The eruption scoured soil and biological communities adjacent to the mountain, and species of conifers have generally been slow to colonize the nutrient-poor substrate surrounding the volcano. Further, different species of conifer establish and grow at different rates. The recent advancement of conifers in the post-eruption landscape has highlighted a research gap related to conifer growth patterns. We measured the height, age, and incremental growth of 472 trees representing three common conifers, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Abies procera, and Pinus contorta, on debris avalanche (80 sites) and pyroclastic flow (82 sites) disturbance zones of the 1980 eruption. We paired annual incremental growth with recent climate data. We found that height, age, and growth rates differ among species and sites. All species had higher growth rates on the debris avalanche deposit compared to the pyroclastic flow due to either climate or substrate. Climate influences were mixed, where one species increased growth with temperature, another declined, and another was unrelated. Nevertheless, more than 40 years after the eruption, we find rapid height growth in species with implications for future forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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25 pages, 9676 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Analysis of SAR and Optical Remote Sensing for Sparse Forest Structure Parameters: A Simulation Study

by Zhihui Mao, Lei Deng, Xinyi Liu and Yueyang Wang

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1244; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081244 - 29 Jul 2025

Abstract

Forest structure parameters are critical for understanding and managing forest ecosystems, yet sparse forests have received limited attention in previous studies. To address this research gap, this study systematically evaluates and compares the sensitivity of active Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and passive optical [...] Read more.

Forest structure parameters are critical for understanding and managing forest ecosystems, yet sparse forests have received limited attention in previous studies. To address this research gap, this study systematically evaluates and compares the sensitivity of active Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and passive optical remote sensing to key forest structure parameters in sparse forests, including Diameter at Breast Height (DBH), Tree Height (H), Crown Width (CW), and Leaf Area Index (LAI). Using the novel computer-graphics-based radiosity model applicable to porous individual thin objects, named Radiosity Applicable to Porous Individual Objects (RAPID), we simulated 38 distinct sparse forest scenarios to generate both SAR backscatter coefficients and optical reflectance across various wavelengths, polarization modes, and incidence/observation angles. Sensitivity was assessed using the coefficient of variation (CV). The results reveal that C-band SAR in HH polarization mode demonstrates the highest sensitivity to DBH (CV = −6.73%), H (CV = −52.68%), and LAI (CV = −63.39%), while optical data in the red band show the strongest response to CW (CV = 18.83%) variations. The study further identifies optimal acquisition configurations, with SAR data achieving maximum sensitivity at smaller incidence angles and optical reflectance performing best at forward observation angles. This study addresses a critical gap by presenting the first systematic comparison of the sensitivity of multi-band SAR and VIS/NIR data to key forest structural parameters across sparsity gradients, thereby clarifying their applicability for monitoring young and middle-aged sparse forests with high carbon sequestration potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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