Degradation of Ecosystem Services and Deforestation in Landscapes With and Without Incentive-Based Forest Conservation in the Ecuadorian Amazon
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Collection
2.2.1. Plot Design
- Ht = Total tree height;
- DBH = Diameter at breast height.
- IVI = Importance index value;
- DoR = Relative dominance;
- DR = Relative density;
- FR = Relative frequency.
- A1 = Forest area at the beginning of the period;
- A2 = Forest area at the end of the period.
2.2.2. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Degradation
3.1.1. Influence of Forest Types on Ecosystem Services Degradation
3.1.2. Influence of IFC, Non-IFC and Forest Types on Ecosystem Services Degradation
3.2. Deforestation
4. Discussion
4.1. Degradation
4.1.1. Influence of Forest Types on Ecosystem Services Degradation
4.1.2. Influence of IFC, Non-IFC and Forest Types on Ecosystem Services Degradation
4.2. Deforestation
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Environmental Variables | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Landscape | Forest Cover 1 (%) | Agricultural Land 1 (%) | Ecosystem 2 | Soil Type 3 | Soil Texture 4 | Mean Distance from Plots to Roads (m) | Altitude m a.s.l. | ||
(mean) | Min. | Max | |||||||
IFC-1 (block 1) | 71.52 | 27.31 | tropical lowland forest | Inceptisol/Andisol | medium–moderately coarse | 3328.86 | 887.9 | 560.0 | 1180.0 |
Non-IFC-1 (block 1) | 57.6 | 39.32 | tropical lowland forest | Inceptisol/Andisol | medium–moderately coarse | 1087.61 | 667.0 | 479.0 | 1049.0 |
IFC-2 (block 2) | 72.62 | 25.77 | tropical lowland forest | Inceptisol/Andisol | fine | 1312.41 | 525.6 | 403.0 | 758.0 |
Non-IFC-2 (block 2) | 81.84 | 16.77 | tropical lowland forest | Inceptisol/Andisol | fine–medium | 1302.99 | 568.6 | 403.0 | 1028.0 |
IFC-3 (block 3) | 65.03 | 28.59 | tropical lowland forest | Inceptisol | fine–medium | 1487.63 | 429.4 | 348.0 | 688.0 |
Non-IFC-3 (block 3) | 50.17 | 43.13 | tropical lowland forest | Inceptisol | fine–medium | 826.91 | 372.2 | 299.0 | 600.0 |
IFC-4 (block 4) | 61.83 | 34.21 | tropical lowland forest | Inceptisol/Andisol | fine–medium | 988.60 | 552.7 | 331.0 | 819.0 |
Non-IFC-4 (block 4) | 49.37 | 48.16 | tropical lowland forest | Inceptisol/Andisol | fine–medium | 1181.18 | 451.3 | 315.0 | 654.0 |
Demographic Variables (Socio-Economic) | |||
---|---|---|---|
Landscape | Population Density (hab. per km2) 1 | Mean Distance from Households within Landscapes to Forest (km) 2 | Distance from Landscape to Large Cities (km) 2 |
IFC-1 (block 1) | 12.68 | 2.82 | 24.00 |
Non-IFC-1 (block 1) | 9.44 | 2.65 | 30.42 |
IFC-2 (block 2) | 9.00 | 2.38 | 46.83 |
Non-IFC-2 (block 2) | 9.33 | 2.03 | 60.50 |
IFC-3 (block 3) | 18.09 | 2.05 | 35.84 |
Non-IFC-3 (block 3) | 21.24 | 1.43 | 58.24 |
IFC-4 (block 4) | 24.22 | 0.83 | 10.20 |
Non-IFC-4 (block 4) | 29.77 | 1.12 | 16.80 |
Factor | IFC vs. non-IFC | ||
---|---|---|---|
IFC Mean (std.err) | Non-IFC Mean (std.err) | p-Value | |
Forest (%) | 67.75 (5.67) | 59.75 (5.67) | 0.3569 |
Agricultural land (%) | 28.97 (5.07) | 36.85 (5.07) | 0.3143 |
Mean Altitude m a.s.l. | 598.90 (84.21) | 514.78 (84.21) | 0.5064 |
Mean Distance from plots to roads (m) | 1779.38 (379.25) | 1099.67 (379.25) | 0.2520 |
Population Density (hab. per km2) | 16.00 (4.22) | 17.45 (4.22) | 0.8166 |
Distance from households within the landscapes to forest (km) | 2.02 (0.39) | 1.81 (0.39) | 0.7099 |
Distance from landscape to large cities (km) | 29.22 (9.39) | 41.49 (9.39) | 0.3911 |
Variable | IFC (mean/Std. err.) | Non-IFC (mean/Std. err.) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Successional forest age | 20 (1.26) | 19 (1.26) | 0.6439 |
Variable | IFC | S.E. | Non-IFC | S.E. |
---|---|---|---|---|
AGC (Mg C·ha−1) | 126.62 | 4.81 | 121.23 | 4.93 |
DOM (Mg C·ha−1) | 11.37 | 0.54 | 10.94 | 0.52 |
SOC (Mg C·ha−1) | 51.44 | 5.31 | 48.70 | 5.31 |
Total carbon (Mg C·ha−1) | 191.77 | 10.43 | 185.97 | 10.43 |
Volume (m3 ha−1) | 303.39 | 15.65 | 283.23 | 15.94 |
Richness (#species/plot) | 46.11 | 2.56 | 46.64 | 2.56 |
Variable | Old Growth Forest | S.E. | Logged Forest | S.E. | Successional Forest | S.E. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AGC (Mg C·ha−1) | 165.63 | 5.87 | 112.97 | 5.87 | 93.17 | 5.75 |
DOM (Mg C·ha−1) | 11.60 | 0.67 | 11.86 | 0,64 | 10.01 | 0.64 |
SOC (Mg C·ha−1) | 52.57 | 5.39 | 48.19 | 5.39 | 49.45 | 5.39 |
Total carbon (Mg C·ha−1) | 236.85 | 10.40 | 176.75 | 10.40 | 153.01 | 10.40 |
Volume (m3 ha−1) | 387.29 | 16.09 | 264.78 | 16.09 | 227.85 | 16.42 |
Richness (#species/plot) | 55.17 | 2.26 | 49.92 | 2.26 | 34.04 | 2.26 |
Variable | Old-Growth Forest with IFC | S.E. | Old-Growth Forest in Non-IFC Landscapes | S.E. | Logged Forest Near IFC | S.E. | Logged Forest in Non-IFC Landscapes | S.E. | Successional Forest Near IFC | S.E. | Successional Forest in Non-IFC landscapes | S.E. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AGC (Mg C·ha−1) | 159.36 | 7.94 | 171.90 | 8.28 | 125.37 | 7.94 | 100.57 | 8.28 | 95.13 | 7.94 | 91.20 | 7.94 |
DOM (Mg C·ha−1) | 12.02 | 0.97 | 11.18 | 0.93 | 12.85 | 0.93 | 10.88 | 0.89 | 9.26 | 0.93 | 10.76 | 0.89 |
SOC (Mg C·ha−1) | 50.91 | 5.78 | 54.24 | 5.78 | 51.26 | 5.78 | 45.12 | 5.78 | 52.16 | 5.78 | 46.75 | 5.78 |
Total carbon (Mg C·ha−1) | 227.60 | 12.78 | 246.10 | 12.78 | 190.39 | 12.78 | 163.10 | 12.78 | 157.32 | 12.78 | 148.71 | 12.78 |
Volume (m3 ha−1) | 380.28 | 22.35 | 394.30 | 23.16 | 283.62 | 23.16 | 245.95 | 22.3 | 246.28 | 22.35 | 209.42 | 24.07 |
Richness (#species/plot) | 55.17 | 3.19 | 55.17 | 3.19 | 46.67 | 3.19 | 53.17 | 3.19 | 36.50 | 3.19 | 31.58 | 3.19 |
IFC–Non-IFC | Annual net Deforestation Rate (%) 2000–2008 | Annual net Deforestation Rate (%) 2008–2016 | Tendency ↓↑ |
---|---|---|---|
IFC 1 | −0.77 | 0.78 | ↓ |
Non-IFC 1 | −0.36 | −0.49 | ↑ |
IFC 2 | −1.23 | −0.33 | ↓ |
Non-IFC 2 | −0.55 | −0.68 | ↑ |
IFC 3 | −1.31 | −0.41 | ↓ |
Non-IFC 3 | −0.53 | −0.43 | ↓ |
IFC 4 | −1.06 | −0.76 | ↓ |
Non-IFC 4 | −0.18 | −0.85 | ↑ |
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Equation | Reference | |
---|---|---|
(1) | Chave et al. [89] | |
(2) | Goodman et al. [94] | |
(3) | Pearson et al. [86] Ravindranath and Ostwald [87] | |
(4) | Pearson et al. [86] Ravindranath and Ostwald [87] | |
(5) | Pearson et al. [86] | |
(6) | Pearson et al. [86] Ravindranath and Ostwald [87] | |
(7) | Pearson et al. [86] Ravindranath and Ostwald [87] | |
(8) | FAO [97] | |
(9) | Chamber et al. [98] | |
(10) | Pearson et al. [86] Ravindranath and Ostwald [87] |
Dependent Variable | IFC vs. non-IFC | Forest Type | Interaction: Forest Types Influenced by IFC and Non-IFC | R2 | n |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
p-Value | p-Value | p-Value | |||
AGC (Mg C·ha−1) | 0.4624 | <0.0001 *** | 0.0696 * | 0.61 | 70 |
DOM (Mg C·ha−1) | 0.6044 | 0.0974 * | 0.1619 | 0.12 | 67 |
SOC (Mg C·ha−1) | 0.3738 | 0.2755 | 0.1753 | 0.53 | 72 |
Total carbon (Mg C·ha−1) | 0.6208 | <0.0001 *** | 0.0459 ** | 0.66 | 72 |
Timber volume (m3 ha−1) | 0.4330 | <0.0001 *** | 0.3498 | 0.57 | 68 |
Richness (#sp./plot) | 0.8933 | <0.0001 *** | 0.0570 * | 0.65 | 72 |
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Eguiguren, P.; Fischer, R.; Günter, S. Degradation of Ecosystem Services and Deforestation in Landscapes With and Without Incentive-Based Forest Conservation in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Forests 2019, 10, 442. https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050442
Eguiguren P, Fischer R, Günter S. Degradation of Ecosystem Services and Deforestation in Landscapes With and Without Incentive-Based Forest Conservation in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Forests. 2019; 10(5):442. https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050442
Chicago/Turabian StyleEguiguren, Paúl, Richard Fischer, and Sven Günter. 2019. "Degradation of Ecosystem Services and Deforestation in Landscapes With and Without Incentive-Based Forest Conservation in the Ecuadorian Amazon" Forests 10, no. 5: 442. https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050442