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Article

Seedling Growth and Quality of Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. under Growth Media Composition and Controlled Salinity in an Ex Situ Nursery

by
Budiadi Budiadi
1,2,*,
Widiyatno Widiyatno
1,
Handojo Hadi Nurjanto
1,
Habib Hasani
3 and
Aqmal Nur Jihad
1
1
Lecturer at Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
2
Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jl. Agro No. 1, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
3
Alumni of Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2022, 13(5), 684; https://doi.org/10.3390/f13050684
Submission received: 25 February 2022 / Revised: 16 April 2022 / Accepted: 26 April 2022 / Published: 28 April 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. is an important mangrove species that inhabits the outermost zone of mangrove forests, but it has been shown to have a poor ability to regenerate due to its low seedling quality. We conducted a study to evaluate the specific growth requirements of A. marina, i.e., medium and salinity level. Germinated seeds were transplanted to pots filled with media, i.e., silt loam (M1), loam (M2), sandy loam (M3), or sand (M4), with various salinity levels 5 (S1), 5–15 (S2), 15–25 (S3), or 25–35 ppt (S4). Survival rate, growth, biomass partition, and seedling quality were observed for 14 weeks after transplanting the seeds. The highest rate of seedling survival was found in the S2 condition, and higher concentrations of salinity lowered the survival rates. The S1 treatment promoted the initial 8 week growth of the seedlings. Growth medium had no significant effect, except on the survival rates grown in M4. Growth medium composition had no distinct effect on seedling growth. The S2 and S3 treatments induced better growth (in terms of shoot height and root length) and resulted in high-quality (i.e., Dickson quality index) seedlings in any type of medium. The S3 treatment increased the seedling quality in M1 and M4, whereas the S4 treatment only benefited seedlings in the M4 medium. According to the results, a specific range of salinity (5–15 ppt) with circulated water in any type of medium is recommended for the establishment of an ex situ nursery for the propagation of A. marina, in contrast to the general range of salinity (4–35 ppt) stated in previous references.

1. Introduction

The mangrove ecosystem in Indonesia covers an area of more than 3 million ha [1] or approximately 21% of the global mangrove forest [2,3]. The mangrove ecosystem is ecologically important for supporting biodiversity, marine ecosystem function [4], and the food web of various aquatic organisms [5]. The mangrove ecosystem can also prevent sedimentation [6], stabilize the habitat, and maintain nutrient cycles [7], thus providing protection to the inland ecosystem against the erosive force of the sea [8]. Numerous studies have also described how mangrove ecosystems support the economic activities of aquaculture and farming (e.g., [9,10]). Thus, the economic productivity of coastal and terrestrial communities relies on the maintenance of the ecological sustainability of mangroves [4,11].
Indonesia has lost vast areas of the mangrove ecosystem in the last century, especially on Java Island, where approximately 75% of the original mangrove area has been lost [12]. The rehabilitation of mangrove forests has been frequently pursued; however, many failures, including the restoration of mangroves to the south of Java Island which face high tides up to 6 m (Indonesian Agency for Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics, unpublished data) from the Indian Ocean, have occurred [13,14]. A lack of silvicultural knowledge, along with some environmental factors, has affected the success of mangrove restoration projects in Purworejo and Kebumen Districts in Central Java [15]. In terms of managing the growth environment, water salinity and the medium or substrate are key elements in the growth and productivity of mangrove species from the seedling stage [16]. Each mangrove species may need a specific range of salinity and a certain medium to facilitate its growth [17,18]. Chen and Ye [19] stated that, in general, the range of salinity for all mangrove species is 4–35 ppt.
Among frontline mangrove species, Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. is one of the most widespread in tropical estuaries, inhabiting the outermost zone of mangrove forests [20], and it has a high tolerance to water salinity [18,21]. This mangrove can grow in soil with varying proportions of sand and clay [22], but specific environmental conditions are needed to support its optimal growth [18]. In addition to environmental factors, success in rehabilitation depends on internal factors, e.g., the type of fruit or propagule [23]. Unlike Rhizophora, which has a stick-like propagule, the propagule of A. marina is ellipsoidal to flattened ovoid, lightweight, small, and able to float in water [24]. The regeneration of A. marina, therefore, must be assisted by producing high-quality seedlings in an ex situ nursery. The use of nursery-grown seedlings can increase the percentage of mangrove survival, especially in unstable substrate [25]. The nursery conditions, which mimic field conditions, can ensure better seedling establishment in the field and provide protection from unnecessary environmental shocks after transplantation.
We established an ex situ nursery for A. marina with controlled environmental factors. As A. marina adapts well to saline environments [18,26] and is distributed in the outermost zone of mangrove forests, we examined the effect of growth medium composition and various ranges of water salinity to enable the better growth and quality of its seedlings.

2. Materials and Methods

Nursery-grown seedlings of mangrove species experience environmental shocks when they are planted in target locations because the growing conditions in a nursery are markedly different from those in the field [27]. To minimize environmental shocks after transplantation, we carried out a glasshouse study, which mimicked field conditions, to obtain the optimum conditions for growing Avicennia marina seedlings. Given that estuarine riverbanks are very dynamic in terms of substrate and water, we studied the effect of medium composition (proportions of sand) and water salinity level.
This study was conducted in a glasshouse managed by the Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia (7°46′01.93″ S, 110°22′49.91″ E). A. marina fruits used in this experiment were collected from A. marina stands on the south coast of Cilacap District, Central Java (7°40’04.98” S, 109°01’45.22” E). The experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design with two combined factors: salinity and medium composition.
The seeds were soaked in fresh water about 24 h, and then directly sown into pots (size 15 × 18 cm) filled with media consisting of an original sedimentary soil and sand mixture with ratios of 1:0 (100% original sediment, M1), 1:1 (M2), 1:3 (M3), and 0:1 (100% sand, M4). On the basis of soil texture, each treatment was classified as follows: silt loam (M1), loam (M2), sandy loam (M3), and sand (M4). The sand was collected from the estuarine riverbank of Progo River (7°58′49.12″, 110°12′26.88″), and the original sedimentary soil was obtained from the sedimentation area near the riverbank. This estuarine riverbank is characterized by an unstable sandy substrate that originated from Merapi volcano (7°32′29.70″, 110°26′44.95″). The pots were then placed in container blocks made of plastic and filled with either fresh water (5 ppt salinity level, S1), or 5–15 (S2), 15–25 (S3), or 25–35 ppt salinity (S4) saline water until all pots were submerged. Each treatment was replicated 20 times for a total of 320 pots. To maintain the salinity and water level in the container block, we circulated the water using an electric water pump connected to a water reservoir. The circulated water helped to avoid waterlogging that may have had a negative impact on the seedlings. The salinity level in the container block was measured daily using a hand refractometer and adjusted to the specified salinity level by adding either fresh or sea water to the reservoir (usually every three days) (Figure 1). Prior to planting, the soil pH, texture, and chemical soil properties (C, total N, P, and K) of the media were analyzed using the appropriate procedures (Table 1).
Seedling survival and height were measured weekly for 14 weeks. The sturdiness quotient (SQ) [28] was calculated as the ratio of seedling height and diameter for each individual seedling. At the end of the study, five plants per treatment representing the mean height of the treatment were harvested to measure dry weight biomass. The shoots and roots of the samples were separated, the length was measured, and the biomass was placed in an oven at 80 °C for 48 h to obtain the dry weight. The ratio of shoot to root (S/R) [29] was calculated from the dry weight biomass of the parts as an indicator of seedling quality. Lastly, the Dickson quality index (DQI) was determined from the total dry weight biomass divided by the sum of S/R and SQ [30]. The effects of treatments on the sturdiness quotient (SQ), Dickson quality index (DQI), and shoot-to-root ratio (S/R) were analyzed using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with the software SAS 9.0. Tukey’s honestly significant difference test was used for multiple comparisons among the means of each treatment.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Physical and Chemical Characteristics of the Media

Increasing the proportion of sand significantly lowered the chemical properties of the media. Organic C, total N, and total K were significantly lower in the M4, M3, and M2 treatments, compared with the M1 treatment (p < 0.001, p < 0.001, and p < 0.001 for organic C, total N, and total K, respectively). By contrast, the P content displayed uncertain patterns (p = 0.421).
The original sedimentary soil was obtained from the nearby riverbank of the Progo river, where the surface water deposits eroded materials rich in organic matter. The P content probably originated from the main sources, including rocks or mineral deposits rich in P such as apatite [31].

3.2. Seedling Survival

The highest seedling survival was recorded in the S2 salinity condition at 96.25% ± 4.79%, whereas increasing the salinity level in the S3 and S4 treatments resulted in lower survival (Figure 2). These relative levels of survival were maintained over the observation period of 14 weeks after transplantation. By contrast, a salinity level lower than 5 ppt (S1) only supported initial growth (up to 8 weeks after transplanting), after which the seedling survival decreased steadily to 71.25% ± 28.10% in the 14 weeks after transplantation (Figure 2a). A. marina seedlings require a certain level of salinity to support their initial growth [19]. This is in line with a study that showed that most seedlings died under a low-salinity regime, because of their failure to develop leaves [18].
A. marina is classified as an obligate halophyte plant that requires salinity [18]; therefore, low-salinity or fresh water does not suitably support its growth [19]. Salinity is required to meet water use efficiency and to preserve a favorable carbon–saltwater balance [32]. Increasing the salinity level beyond a particular level, however, reduces the growth rate of this plant [33]. At high levels of salinity, water uptake decreases, causing salt accumulation in the older transpiring leaves to a toxic level. This condition causes the premature senescence of leaves [34] because the accumulation of salt concentration causes turgor loss and cell dehydration [35]. A. marina seedlings need an optimum range of salinity, thus supporting the idea that a certain salinity level is important if improved growth performance is to be obtained [17,18].
In contrast to water salinity, medium composition had no obvious influence on seedling survival. The highest seedling survival was displayed in the M4 medium (at 96.25% ± 7.50%). In the Ajuruteua Peninsula on the Amazon Coast of Brazil, propagules of A. germinans survived in media with a low nutrient content for 9 months, and it was shown that the highest survival rate (more than 85%) was obtained in sandy medium [36]. According to Bruand et al. [37], sandy soil has greater porosity. To maintain the survival of Avicennia sp., the porosity or physical properties of the medium are more important than the chemical content.

3.3. Seedling Growth and SQ

The rate of water salinity significantly affected the seedlings’ root lengths and shoot heights (root: p < 0.001; shoot: p < 0.001) and SQ (p < 0.001) (Table 2). In contrast, the medium composition had no distinct effect on seedling growth (root: p = 0.28; shoot: p = 0.09; SQ: p = 0.098). In both treatments, no interactions were found in terms of seedling growth and SQ.
Similar to the seedling survival rate, a low level of water salinity resulted in the shortest roots and shoots, as well as the lowest SQ value (Figure 3). A specific range of salinity affected the seedling height growth, showing a similar collar diameter. The water salinity in the S2 treatment (at 38.2 ± 6.47 cm) resulted in the highest shoot and SQ value (at 9.55), whereas the S3 water salinity treatment induced the longest roots (at 34.03 ± 10.42 cm). Our result also showed that the salinity levels in the S2 and S3 treatments caused higher growth rates in seedlings in all types of media. This result is similar to that found by Nguyen et al. [18], where low salinity affected the physiology of A. marina seedlings, especially with regard to the ability to produce leaves. On the other hand, a high salinity level affects water transport in stems, causing leaf fall, which leads to leaf mortality and seedling death in the long term [18,38].
The value of SQ (>6) indicates that the seedlings were tall and spindly, which are usually undesirable qualities as they cause the seedlings to have imbalanced proportions [28,39]. Additionally, higher SQ values may reduce the seedling vigor (SV) [40,41,42] and reduce growth performance after being transplanted in the field [39,43].

3.4. Biomass Partition and Seedling Quality

The biomass of 14 week old A. marina seedlings was significantly affected by the level of salinity (roots: p < 0.001; shoots: p < 0.001; leaves: p < 0.001) and was slightly affected by the medium composition (shoots: p = 0.013; leaves: p = 0.001). However, root biomass was not significantly affected by the medium treatments (p = 0.060). Meanwhile, interactions between treatments were significant with regard to the biomass of roots (p = 0.042) and leaves (p = 0.018) but not shoots (p = 0.078) (Table 3).
The lowest salinity level (S1, <5 ppt) reduced above- and below-ground biomass weights in all types of media (Figure 4). Comparatively, the salinity level in the S2 treatment induced the optimum growth and biomass weight of the above- and below-ground parts, and no significant difference was observed among medium types.
Salinity, medium type, and their interactions had no significant effect on the S/R value (F = 0.569, p = 0.638; F = 1.124, p = 0.346 for the effect of water salinity and medium type, respectively) (Table 4, Figure 4). S/R, as an indicator of seedling quality resulting from all the treatments, was around 2:1, except in S1M1 (at 1.13) and S1M2 (at 1.41) combination treatments. No distinct differences in S/R were observed between treatments. However, when we compared the S/R and SQ values, at a similar S/R, the seedlings with the highest SQ value (in S2 and S3 in all medium types) displayed the most growth.
Furthermore, water salinity was observed to have a significant effect on the DQI (F = 8.177, p < 0.001), but no significant effect was noted for medium type (F = 1.241, p = 0.302) and the interaction of both treatments. In Tukey’s test, the DQI value of seedlings in the S1 treatment was the lowest, whereas, in the S2, S3, and S4 treatments, the values were similar. However, the S2 and S3 treatments provided the best water environment to produce high-quality seedlings of A. marina.
A stable biomass partition reflected in S/R proved that, under different salinity levels, A. marina seedlings adapted well and grew steadily, albeit at different growth rates. A similar result was found in with A. germinans, which has a mechanism that enables its survival in a saline environment by reducing leaf conductance and photosynthesis, which might be affected by changing leaf size [26]. In general, the S/R of seedlings was 2:1 [44], and, within the S/R range, A. marina adapted well in different treatments, except in fresh water. Thus, nursery managers must avoid utilizing fresh water in A. marina seedling development.
The DQI value has a correlation with seedling vigor (SV) [40]. A higher DQI indicates better seedling quality [28]. However, in this study, the DQI value was low, with an average of 0.3. Regardless, the use of water salinity affected the DQI of A. marina seedlings. To produce high-quality A. marina seedlings in ex situ nurseries, we suggest keeping the salinity level at more than 5 ppt, with the optimum being 5–15 ppt, while strictly avoiding fresh water. According to Kanai et al. [45], low water salinity (<5 ppt) affects the low growth capability of seedlings, and high water salinity (>15 ppt) affects growth variation due to the reduced photosynthetic production and growth and the increased leaf loss.
Moreover, high salinity levels inhibit stomatal activity, interrupting the net assimilation rate due to the accumulation of Na+ and Cl− [46] and the survival rate of A. marina. The result of this study, to a certain extent, confirms that water salinity is an important growth factor for mangrove species [17,18] rather than a stress stimulator [47]. In short, in ex situ nurseries, the manager should be flexible in utilizing various kinds of media for A. marina seedlings within an acceptable range of salinity, i.e., 5–15 ppt.
Our study showed that the best treatment for A. marina was sandy soil (M4) combined with the S2 treatment [37]. Sandy soil is abundant in estuaries south of Java Island as a result of a volcanic eruption, and it is the main substrate in the mangrove ecosystem in the area. Sandy soil has good porosity, promoting the early growth of juvenile Avicennia sp. and increasing the number of leaves on these plants [36,48]. In previous studies, additional P did not affect the seedling growth and biomass of A. marina [49] and A. germinans [50].

4. Conclusions

Considering the poor ability of Avicennia marina to naturally regenerate and previous failures in artificial rehabilitation, the development of ex situ nurseries is a necessity. Ex situ nurseries should be designed in accordance with the following recommendations to produce high-growth-rate and high-quality seedlings:
  • The use of fresh water (salinity < 5 ppt) as a submerging medium for growing A. marina must be avoided. A salinity level ranging from 5 to 15 ppt is optimum for the production of high-quality A. marina seedlings.
  • The positive effect of increasing sand content on the growth and quality of the seedlings in this study reflects the fact that the physical properties of soil play an important role in the growth of A. marina seedlings. Sandy soil with a relatively higher porosity level is recommended for use in the initial growth of A. marina seedlings, more so than other growth medium compositions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualized and designed the research, performed the analysis, wrote the original article, discussed the results, and revised the first draft, B.B.; performed data analysis and revised the first draft, W.W.; performed data collection and analysis, and revised the first draft, H.H.N.; collected and performed data analysis, H.H.; performed data analysis, and revised and finalized the first draft, A.N.J. All authors read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully thank the Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education, Republic of Indonesia, and the Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia for their permission and guidance provided for the completion of this research.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Equipment for propagation of Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. with varying media and salinity, showing the mechanism of water circulation in a container block of each salinity type using an electric water pump and inlet–outlet pipes.
Figure 1. Equipment for propagation of Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. with varying media and salinity, showing the mechanism of water circulation in a container block of each salinity type using an electric water pump and inlet–outlet pipes.
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Figure 2. Survival rate of Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. seedlings in a controlled environment: (a) salinity (S) and (b) medium composition (M). (S1: salinity < 5 ppt, S2: 5–15 ppt, S3: 15–25 ppt, and S4: 25–35 ppt; M1: original sedimentary soil and sand (100:0), M2: 50:50, M3: 25:75, and M4: 0:100).
Figure 2. Survival rate of Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. seedlings in a controlled environment: (a) salinity (S) and (b) medium composition (M). (S1: salinity < 5 ppt, S2: 5–15 ppt, S3: 15–25 ppt, and S4: 25–35 ppt; M1: original sedimentary soil and sand (100:0), M2: 50:50, M3: 25:75, and M4: 0:100).
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Forests 13 00684 g003 550
Figure 3. Effect of (a) medium (M) and (b) salinity (S) on the root and shoot length, as well as sturdiness quotient (SQ), of 14 week old Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. seedlings. Different letters above and below the bars indicate significant differences between treatments at α = 0.05. Note: S1: salinity < 5 ppt, S2: 5–15 ppt, S3: 15–25 ppt, and S4: 25–35 ppt; M1: original sedimentary soil (100:0), M2: original sedimentary soil + sand (50:50), M3: original sedimentary soil + sand (25:75), and M4: sandy soil).
Figure 3. Effect of (a) medium (M) and (b) salinity (S) on the root and shoot length, as well as sturdiness quotient (SQ), of 14 week old Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. seedlings. Different letters above and below the bars indicate significant differences between treatments at α = 0.05. Note: S1: salinity < 5 ppt, S2: 5–15 ppt, S3: 15–25 ppt, and S4: 25–35 ppt; M1: original sedimentary soil (100:0), M2: original sedimentary soil + sand (50:50), M3: original sedimentary soil + sand (25:75), and M4: sandy soil).
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Figure 4. The effect of salinity (S) and medium (M) on the partition of roots, shoots, and leaf biomass of 14 week old Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh., with additional information regarding S/R values and DQI of each treatment at the bottom. No significant differences (ns) at α 95% were observed between and among treatments for the S/R. Different letters under the DQI values indicate a significant difference at α = 0.05 between salinity treatments, whereas no significant differences were noted between medium compositions within the salinity ranges (ANOVA test in Table 4). Note: S1: salinity < 5 ppt, S2: 5–15 ppt, S3: 15–25 ppt, and S4: 25–35 ppt;.M1: original sedimentary soil + sand (100:0), M2: original sedimentary soil + sand (50:50), M3: original sedimentary soil + sand (25:75), and M4: sandy soil (0:100).
Figure 4. The effect of salinity (S) and medium (M) on the partition of roots, shoots, and leaf biomass of 14 week old Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh., with additional information regarding S/R values and DQI of each treatment at the bottom. No significant differences (ns) at α 95% were observed between and among treatments for the S/R. Different letters under the DQI values indicate a significant difference at α = 0.05 between salinity treatments, whereas no significant differences were noted between medium compositions within the salinity ranges (ANOVA test in Table 4). Note: S1: salinity < 5 ppt, S2: 5–15 ppt, S3: 15–25 ppt, and S4: 25–35 ppt;.M1: original sedimentary soil + sand (100:0), M2: original sedimentary soil + sand (50:50), M3: original sedimentary soil + sand (25:75), and M4: sandy soil (0:100).
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Table
Table 1. Physical and chemical compositions of media used for propagation of Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. seedlings in an ex situ nursery.
Table 1. Physical and chemical compositions of media used for propagation of Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. seedlings in an ex situ nursery.
ComponentMedia *
M1M2M3M4
pH6.81 ± 0.126.90 ± 0.097.10 ± 0.047.02 ± 0.17
Fine sand (%)31.50 ± 0.25d52.50 ± 0.41c67.00 ± 0.48b88 ± 0.65a
Total Clay (%)13.75 ± 0.48a13.00 ± 0.65a13.75 ± 0.48a7.50 ± 1.25b
Silt (%)54.75 ± 0.79d34.5 ± 6.06c19.25 ± 0.74b3.75 ± 8.78a
C-org1.26 ± 0.09a1.02 ± 0.05ab0.71 ± 0.13bc0.43 ± 0.13cd
N (ppm)159.00 ± 13.77d104.50 ± 5.14c58.25 ± 6.98b11.80 ± 3.98a
P (ppm)10.50 ± 3.0717.25 ± 5.3924.25 ± 6.7616.75 ± 6.38
K (Me/100 gr)1.47 ± 0.20a1.13 ± 0.17ab0.82 ± 0.13bc0.38 ± 0.02cd
* M1: original sediment soil (100:0), M2: original sediment soil + sand = 50:50, M3: original sediment soil + sand = 25:75, M4: sand; pH = potential of hydrogen; N = nitrogen; P = phosphorus; K = potassium. Different letters following a value in the same row indicate a significant difference, while mean values are presented with standard errors.
Table
Table 2. Effect of medium composition and water salinity on root length, shoot height (cm), and sturdiness quotient (SQ) of 14 week old Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. seedlings.
Table 2. Effect of medium composition and water salinity on root length, shoot height (cm), and sturdiness quotient (SQ) of 14 week old Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. seedlings.
Source of
Variance		DFRoot LengthShoot HeightSQ
MSEFMSEFMSEF
Media369.9541.306 ns95.6462.290 ns7.6282.191 ns
Salinity32118.29539.540 **2811.88667.312 **277.05179.587 **
Media +
Salinity		958.0541.084 ns46.9291.124 ns4.1531.193 ns
Note: MSE, mean standard error; ** significantly different at α = 0.05; ns = no significant difference between treatments at α = 0.05.
Table
Table 3. Effect of water salinity and media composition on root, shoot, and leaf biomass (g) of 14 week old Avicenna marina (Forssk.) Vierh. seedlings.
Table 3. Effect of water salinity and media composition on root, shoot, and leaf biomass (g) of 14 week old Avicenna marina (Forssk.) Vierh. seedlings.
Source of
Variance		DFRootShootLeaf
MSEFMSEFMSEF
Media30.3722.591 ns0.3773.857 *0.8006.026 *
Salinity33.50224.377 **4.53346.348 **3.51726.481 **
Media × salinity90.3022.104 *0.1801.841 ns0.3262.453 *
Note: MSE, mean standard error; * significantly different at α = 0.05; ** significantly different at α = 0.01; ns = no significant difference among treatments at α = 0.05.
Table
Table 4. Effect of medium and water salinity on shoot-to-root ratio (S/R) and Dickson quality index (DQI) of 14 week old Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. seedlings.
Table 4. Effect of medium and water salinity on shoot-to-root ratio (S/R) and Dickson quality index (DQI) of 14 week old Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. seedlings.
Source of VarianceDFS/RDQI
MSEFMSEF
Media33.6711.124 ns0.4071.241 ns
Salinity31.8570.569 ns2.6848.177 **
Media × salinity93.9711.217 ns0.3721.132 ns
Note: ** significantly different at α = 0.05; ns = no significant difference between treatments at α = 0.05.
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Budiadi, B.; Widiyatno, W.; Nurjanto, H.H.; Hasani, H.; Jihad, A.N. Seedling Growth and Quality of Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. under Growth Media Composition and Controlled Salinity in an Ex Situ Nursery. Forests 2022, 13, 684. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13050684

AMA Style

Budiadi B, Widiyatno W, Nurjanto HH, Hasani H, Jihad AN. Seedling Growth and Quality of Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. under Growth Media Composition and Controlled Salinity in an Ex Situ Nursery. Forests. 2022; 13(5):684. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13050684

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Budiadi, Budiadi, Widiyatno Widiyatno, Handojo Hadi Nurjanto, Habib Hasani, and Aqmal Nur Jihad. 2022. "Seedling Growth and Quality of Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. under Growth Media Composition and Controlled Salinity in an Ex Situ Nursery" Forests 13, no. 5: 684. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13050684

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