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Article

Wood Quality of Pendulate Oak on Post-Agricultural Land: A Case Study Based on Physico-Mechanical and Anatomical Properties

by
Karol Tomczak
1,2,*,
Przemysław Mania
1,
Jan Cukor
3,4,
Zdeněk Vacek
3,
Magdalena Komorowicz
1,2 and
Arkadiusz Tomczak
1
1
Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 71A, 60-625 Poznań, Poland
2
Łukasiewicz Research Network—Poznań Institute of Technology, Ewarysta Estkowskiego 6, 61-755 Poznan, Poland
3
Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165-21 Prague, Czech Republic
4
Forestry and Game Management Research Institute, Strnady 136, 252-02 Jíloviště, Czech Republic
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2024, 15(8), 1394; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15081394
Submission received: 1 July 2024 / Revised: 1 August 2024 / Accepted: 6 August 2024 / Published: 9 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Oak is one of the most economically important hardwood tree species in Europe, and its prevalence will increase due to progressing global climate change, according to predictive models. With the increasing demand for timber and with the need for a balance between carbon emissions and sequestration, it is essential to address the afforestation of agricultural land. Therefore, this research aimed to investigate the physico-mechanical properties and anatomical structure of pendulate oak (Quercus robur L.) wood—specifically focusing on the trunk’s cross-section—in post-agricultural areas compared with the forest land in the western part of Poland. Wood density, bending strength, modulus of elasticity, and other parameters were analyzed from 1626 wood samples. The analysis of physico-mechanical properties reveals that, historically, agricultural land use has an almost negligible impact on wood quality. Despite significant differences in small vessel diameter and fiber length favoring trees from post-agricultural land, the physico-mechanical properties remain consistent. Large vessel measurements show comparable diameter and length in both land types. These findings suggest that post-agricultural land can serve as an effective alternative for high-quality pendulate oak wood production for industrial purposes. However, wood from post-agricultural land may exhibit a decrease in modulus of rupture by over 30% and potentially lower density above the trunk’s halfway point. This observation hints at the fact that oak trees in post-agricultural areas could be cultivated in shorter rotation periods compared to forest land.

1. Introduction

Wood is a natural renewable resource, a strategic raw material, essential for sustainable economic development [1,2]. In this long-term process of economic changes, along with the continued world’s population growth, a parallel increase in demand for firewood and wood used for industrial purposes is evident [3,4]. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) [5], the demand for wood is expected to increase by approximately 40% by 2050. On a global scale, forest areas have been significantly reduced over the last 300 years [6]. Thus, presently, forestry is facing a crucial issue—to meet all the societal needs of forest management, scale down deforestation [5,7], raise societal expectations for conservation [8,9], and partially mitigate the impact of climate change [10,11,12], while at the same time, still provide a sufficient amount of quality timber for commercial use [13]. Globally, one way to address this is timber production in fast-growing tree plantations, i.e., poplar (Populus spp.), willow (Salix spp.), Paulownia (Paulownia spp.), alder (Alnus spp.), birch (Betula spp.), and other tree species with a short rotation period [14,15,16]. By integrating fast-growing tree species, agroforestry systems emerge as an enticing strategy, easing the strain on land competition between wood biomass and food production while delivering forest-related benefits [17,18]. In Central Europe, due to several limiting factors, the potential for fast-growing tree plantations does not show adequate efficiency and productivity compared to its theoretical potential [19]. In contrast, the afforestation of abandoned post-agricultural land, or postproduction lands, i.e., post-mining areas, to increase forest area and wood production seems to be a relevant idea [20,21,22,23].
Forest habitats on land which have been forested in the last 150 years, where the current forest generation is the first after long-term agricultural use (former agricultural land, meadows, pastures) are called afforested post-agricultural land. Afforestation of post-agricultural land in Europe began as early as the 18th century and peaked after World War II, continuing at a slower pace until the present day. In many central and eastern European countries, the forest area had increased by several percentage points [24,25] by the end of the 1990s. Post-agricultural land can be reforested with both coniferous and deciduous tree species [26,27]. Due to the adaptation to climate change, native and non-native tree species growth on post-agricultural lands can be compared [28,29,30,31]. The goal of the current research is to select tree species that characterize resistance to climate extremes, substantial productivity potential, and high-quality wood [32,33,34]. However, in Europe, there are several limiting factors, including activities that affect the productivity of forests and the production of timber and biomass on former farmland [35,36]. Prior studies have shown that production efficiency and wood quality significantly depend on previous land use. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) wood from post-agricultural land has a lower density [37], while the total biomass production is similar [38]. Comparable results for the wood density of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst) and European larch (Larix decidua Mill.) were shown by Cukor et al. [39]. Larch and spruce stands on afforested agricultural land have a high production potential and biomass carbon sequestration compared to forest land [40]. Meanwhile, Zeidler et al. [41] reported on the suitability of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirbel] Franco) for timber production on post-agricultural land. Some deciduous species also have a high production potential on post-agricultural land: black poplar (Populus nigra L.) [42], silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) [27,43,44], and black alder (Alnus glutinosa [L.] Gaertn.) [45]. European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and oaks (Quercus spp.)—species with a large share of total forest biomass production—were also used in the afforestation of abandoned agricultural land. Based on the trunk length without branches, Tomczak et al. [27] showed similar wood quality from post-agricultural and forest land for beech and statistically significant differences for oak. Oaks from forest land had a longer trunk section without branches. Moreover, Tomczak et al. [46] showed that annual ring width was lower, and wood density was higher for oaks from forest land compared to farmland. Both studied oak forest stands had an identical distribution of the analyzed characteristics from the cross-section of the trunks. That means higher density and wider annual rings at the pith than at the bark. The response of oak to post-agricultural soil characteristics is a more dynamic average annual ring growth in young trees. A similar response was also shown for other species.
In general, oak is a ring-porous species that has a high proportion of heartwood [47] with high economic potential. A characteristic feature of oak heartwood is its high moisture content, similar to sapwood [48,49]. Oak trees provide valuable wood with high density, strength, and durability [50,51,52]. According to Pretzsch et al. [53], oaks possess high drought tolerance, and a wide ecological amplitude compared to other native tree species. In a world of progressing climate change, tree species with high drought tolerance are becoming increasingly important, particularly in Central Europe [54,55]. Given this, oaks can contribute to timber production during long-term drought stress [56]. Moreover, oak is relatively resistant to biotic factors (e.g., insects and pathogens) compared to other tree species [57]. Oaks can positively influence the growth of admixed tree species [53] and exhibit high ecological value for species diversity [58].
The productivity of oak stands depends on forest management, stand age, and stand density [59]. Oak productivity at a site is influenced by climatic factors, soil type, geology, and altitude [60,61]. Given the substantial effect of soil on oak productivity and the relevance of post-agricultural land in biomass production, we conducted a study on the development of oak wood and its selected properties. Additionally, according to models, climate changes cause the expansion of the distribution area, which underscores its expanding importance and ability to adapt to new conditions [32].
The main hypotheses of this research focusing on the wood quality of pendulate oak (Quercus robur L.) are as follows:
(i)
Wood originating from post-agricultural land will demonstrate physico-mechanical properties that are different to wood from forest land;
(ii)
There will not be a difference between vessels and fiber dimensions between samples from the forest and former agricultural land;
(iii)
Changes in wood properties on the cross-section of the trunk will not be comparable for both types of land, especially close to the pith zone.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Site

The study evaluated selected anatomical, physical, and mechanical properties of pendulate oak growing on post-agricultural land. Study sites were located in western Poland in the Pniewy Forest District, in the northern part of Greater Poland. The average annual precipitation in this region is 550 mm, the lowest in Poland, with an 8.2 °C average temperature. The growing season takes 216 days. According to Köppen’s climatic classification [62], the study site is classified as Cfb—temperate oceanic climate. The history of land use was confirmed by the State Forests in Poland, a stakeholder in study plot areas. For confirmation of the history of land use, the comparison between current forest maps and 19th and 20th century maps was obtained. According to the State Forest inventory, all cut trees were at least 144 years old; however, the results of ring calculations show that the trees from post-agricultural land were from 136 to 149 years old, while trees from forest land were from 129 to 130 years old, with an average diameter at the breast height (DBH) of 63 cm and 31 m height on forest land and 55 cm and 26 m on post-agricultural land. The average stand volume was 551 and 435 m3/ha, respectively (Table 1).

2.2. Data Collection

2.2.1. Tree Selection

On each study plot, the diameter at breast height (D1.3) of every pendulate oak was measured to an accuracy of 1 cm by the crossover method, using a Haglöf caliper (Haglöf Sweden AB, Långsele, Sweden) in the north–south (DN–S) and east–west (DE–W) directions. Tree height (H) was measured to an accuracy of 0.5 m using a Suunto PM-5 clinometer (Suunto, Vanta, Finland). In the next step, the model trees, representing various diameter classes, were selected from all measured trees. Six oak trees were harvested—three on former agricultural land and three on forest land.

2.2.2. Collecting and Preparing Research Material

First, a 5 cm thick disk was cut from each model tree at breast height. In the next step, a core board was cut from each model tree in the north–south direction (N–S). The core board was cut at breast height. Each core board was about 70 cm long, measured from the breast height toward the base of the trunk. On every board, the N direction was marked. Then, all research material was transported and seasoned. To prepare samples, the northern side of all boards was cut out (N-board). Then, the N-boards were trimmed, leveled, and planned. The boards were cut and marked along the cross-section of each N-board. Each board represented one section from the pith to the bark. Then, the 10 mm × 10 mm × 150 mm wood samples were cut from cross-section boards and marked. In this study, the decision was made to perform tests on smaller sample sizes than in most published work about the physical and mechanical wood properties to conduct a detailed analysis of the trunk cross-section. The results on the cross-section of the trunk are presented in 10 percent ranges from 10 to 90 percent of the cross-section. Each section represented the range of samples of a specific range, e.g., 20% represents samples from 11 to 20% of the cross-section of the trunk. The samples of the best quality—flawless shape, tangential fiber direction, parallel to sample axis, and tangential annual ring arrangement to one of the sample edges, containing no visible wood defects, such as knots or rot—were marked and selected for future tests. Samples that did not pass the selection were withdrawn from the study. The minimum number of samples per section was six, while the maximum was fifteen (Figure 1). Among the six core boards, 1626 wood samples were classified for this study.

2.2.3. The Evaluation of Annual Ring Growth and Anatomical Structure

Core boards cut from discs extracted at the breast height level were used to measure the width of annual growth rings and then for anatomical structure. Beforehand, each core board’s surface was prepared on a leveling planer to make the growth boundaries more visible. The width of the annual rings along the northern radius were measured to the nearest 0.01 mm using a BIOtronik® BEPD-19 (BIOtronik, Warsaw, Poland) computerized increment meter. The measurements were obtained on wood characterized by a moisture content of approximately 9%. For the next step, a determination of the length and diameter of vessel members within individual annual increments was performed on macerated material. The core boards used for measuring the width of annual rings were utilized for this test. First, the annual increment to be macerated is placed in a weighing boat with a mixture of concentrated 98% acetic acid (CH3COOH) and 30% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in a ratio of 1:1. The maceration process was conducted at 60 °C for approximately 48–72 h. After this time, the mixture was drained, and the macerated pieces were rinsed several times with distilled water. Subsequently, macerates were used to create microscopic preparations, wherein the anatomical components were captured by a computer image analyzer employing Motic Images Plus 3.0 (Motic, Hong Kong). The length and diameter of the vessels were gauged to an accuracy of 1 μm. In the case of each sample, 15 large, 15 small vessels, and 30 fibers were measured. In total, 920 vessels and 900 fibers were measured.

2.2.4. Chemical Composition

After measuring the anatomical characteristics, the same core boards from post-agricultural and forest land were evaluated for their chemical composition. In addition, the chemical composition was also examined on the trunk’s cross-section in three sections—25% (closest to the pith), 50%, and 90% (closest to the bark). In conducting the tests, a sliver of oak wood measuring 0.5–1.0 mm was employed. The moisture content of these wood slivers was determined using the oven-weight method at a temperature of 103 ± 2 °C, and it was established as 6.5%. The composition of chief components in wood, such as extractives, cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, was analyzed. The content analysis of substances soluble in 95% ethanol was performed in Soxhlet apparatus acc. to TAPPI standard T204. The content of hemicelluloses expressed as main substances soluble in 1% NaOH aqueous solution acc. to the TAPPI T212 method was tested. The amount of cellulose was examined with acetylacetone by the Seifert method. The content of lignin non-soluble in 72% H2SO4 (Klason lignin) was tested with standard TAPPI T222 [63].

2.2.5. Measurements of Physical and Mechanical Properties

Determining the distribution of wood density (WD) along the radius of the tested trees was based on samples with dimensions of 10 × 10 × 150 mm. The tests were performed on wood characterized by a moisture content of approximately 9%. The samples were measured using an electronic caliper with an accuracy to the nearest 0.01 mm, and their weight was determined to the nearest 0.001 g. The wood density was determined using the following formula:
WD = m/V
where
  • WD—wood density [g/cm3];
  • m—mass of wood sample [g];
  • V—volume of the sample [cm3].

2.2.6. Testing Mechanical Properties

Following that, identical samples were employed to determine the mechanical properties. The determination of the bending strength (BS) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) were performed based on the changed international standard ISO 13061-10:2017 [64]—Physical and mechanical properties of wood—Test methods for small clear wood specimens, by reducing the distance between supports from 240 mm to 120 mm, due to reduced heights of specimens to 10 mm instead of 20 mm and slenderness 15, and moisture content of specimens from 12% to 9%. Mechanical tests were conducted on a Zwick Z010 testing machine (Zwick Roell Group, Ulm, Germany). All samples were forced in a tangential direction.

2.3. Data Analyses

For the first step, to verify the distribution of the data, the Shapiro–Wilk test was performed. The data for all measured morphological characteristics and calculated variables led to the rejection of the normal distribution hypothesis. For comparison of non-parametric data, the Wilcoxon test was conducted. Statistical inference was performed at the significance level α = 0.05. The correlation coefficient was estimated by using the Pearson coefficient. For setting the R2, the linear model was fitted by using “lm” function in RStudio (R Core Team 2024, Vienna, Austria). This tool enables the execution of regression, single stratum analysis of variance, and analysis of covariance. The RStudio program and R package 4.2.2 (R Core Team 2024, Vienna, Austria) were used for data calculations and visualization.

3. Results

3.1. Physical and Mechanical Properties

The average density from all tested oak wood samples was 0.691 g/cm3. Trees that grow on forest land were characterized by greater density (+0.04 g/cm3); however, the difference was not significant. For the variability on the trunk’s cross-section, the decreasing trend from the pith area into the bark direction was observed in both cases (Figure 2). More favorable mechanical properties were assessed on trees cut from forest land, for bending strength and modulus of elasticity. The BS difference between FA and FL was around 12 MPa and 2 GPa in the MOE. However, the Wilcoxon test results are not significant. A decreasing trend in mechanical properties, similar to density, was observed on the cross-section of the trunk (Figure 3 and Figure 4).

3.2. Relationship between Physical and Mechanical Properties

Figure 5 shows a correlation between tested mechanical properties separately for each type of land. A highly significant relationship between bending strength and density was found in both FA and FL. However, the correlation on FA was more pronounced (R2 = 0.73, R = 0.85) than on FL (R2 = 0.61, R = 0.78). Thus, the level of predictability of bending strength by using density is positively strong but lower with FA. The highest dependence was discovered in the correlation between MOE and BS. A significant correlation between these properties was evident in both FA (R2 = 0.91, R = 0.96) and FL (R2 = 0.84).

3.3. Annual Ring Width

The average width of annual rings among all measured cores was 2.27 mm. In comparing the average width between FA and FL, slightly wider rings were observed on FA. Significant differences were not observed (Table 2). However, an analysis of the trunk’s cross-section showed significant differences in annual ring width in the pith zone—compared to samples on the 10th and 20th percentage of the cross-section, and, in the middle of the cross-section, between 40% and 70% (Figure 6).

3.4. Anatomical and Chemical Characteristics of Wood

3.4.1. Vessel Characteristics

During measurements, two types of vessels were recognized—large (LV) and small (SV). The average diameter of LVs was greater on post-agricultural land. Meanwhile, LVs had been on forest land for longer. However, no significant differences between large vessel dimensions were identified (Table 3). The same phenomenon was observed in the cross-section of the trunk. Significant differences were seen on the measuring point closest to the bark—p-value = 0.022 (Figure 7). In the case of small vessels, the opposite observation was noticed. The average diameter was greater on forest land when longer vessels were discovered on post-agricultural land. The difference between diameters was significant (Table 3). In a radial variation, significant differences were observed in diameter and length closest to the pith (Figure 8).

3.4.2. Fiber Characteristics

The mean length of fiber from former agricultural land was 165 μm greater than that from forest land. The difference was significant (Table 4). The same phenomenon was observed on the cross-section throughout the whole trunk. Significant differences were detected at every location on the cross-section of the stem sampled (Figure 9).

3.4.3. Chemical Composition

The chemical component content was analyzed in Table 5. In general, there were no significant changes in the trunk cross-section between samples collected on post-agricultural and forest land. Nevertheless, we observed an upward trend in the lignin content alongside a corresponding downward trend in the cellulose content. Regarding the comparisons of the components’ share between FL and FA, the most substantial differences were observed in the cellulose content, followed by lignin and hemicellulose.

4. Discussion

From an economic point of view, oaks are the most important hardwood species in all Europe [65,66]. Oak is classified as a ring-porous species, whose wood is commonly used for producing high-quality products, such as veneer or timber constructions [67,68]. Oaks also play a role in ecology and culture [69]. Unfortunately, due to habitat limitations, advocating more fertile lands for agricultural use, combined with the history of forest management, which has been focused on the fast production of conifer species, Poland oaks only occupy around 7.5% of the forest area [70]. In the rest of Europe, they cover approximately 30% of forest land [5]. In this study, oak wood from alternative sources—understood as post-agricultural land—was used for a quality evaluation. The comparison with wood collected on forest land was performed. The wood of both pendulate and sessile (Quercus petraea [Matt.] Liebl.) oak does not differ significantly from each other. Moreover, the information about differences in anatomical characteristics between pendulate and sessile oak is limited. Due to these reasons, the discussion contains research results for both species [71,72].
According to Wagenführ [73], the oak wood density with a moisture content (MC) of 12%–15% ranged from 0.43 to 0.96 g/cm3. Muñoz and Gete [74] measured the density of pendulate oak at 12% MC and obtained an average of 0.786 g/cm3, while Brunetti et al. [75] described it as 0.801 g/cm3. In this study, all measurements and tests were performed with an approx. 9% wood moisture content, which is the most applicable for the practical use of wood. Mania and Tomczak [76] tested the density of sessile oak at 9% MC and obtained values ranging from 0.53 g/cm3 to 0.72 g/cm3 (avg 0.65 g/cm3). The average wood density from post-agricultural land was of 0.671 g/cm3, which was lower than the density of trees that grow on forest land—0.712 g/cm3. The same phenomenon was observed in comparing basic densities from increment cores collected from FA and FL by Tomczak et al. [46]. Due to the ring-porous wood structure of oak wood, the radial variety of properties is opposite to that of conifers. The highest density was seen closest to the pith area, while the lowest was near the bark area. Similar phenomena were confirmed by other authors [49,51,77].
For the mechanical properties of the tested wood, a higher bending strength and modulus of elasticity were observed on forest lands. According to Wagenführ [73], the range of bending strength of pendulate oak is between 74 and 108 MPa, and the MOE is from 10 to 13.2 GPa. The BS of trees from forest and post-agricultural land was consequently 97 and 85 MPa, while the MOE was 8.5 and 6.5 MPa. The results are lower than those found by Mania and Tomczak [76] for both BS and MOE. Brunetti et al. [75] showed even higher values of bending strength and modulus of elasticity for sessile oak at 126 MPa and almost 15.8 MPa, respectively, although they tested samples under higher MC conditions. It should be emphasized, however, that these differences are minor, which allows for a wider use of oak wood from former agricultural areas. Additionally, it should be noted that the density and mechanical properties decrease rapidly above 70% of the position on the cross-section of the trunk. The issue requires more discussion, considering that oak trees on post-agricultural land can be harvested earlier, since the properties of wood depreciate significantly. The mechanical properties were highly correlated with wood density on both types of land, but a higher correlation was observed on post-agricultural land. This means that mechanical properties can be accurately predicted using wood density or modulus of elasticity. Similar phenomena were observed by Muñoz and Gete [74], who noted and predicted satisfactory mechanical strength by using the MOE.
The anatomical structure of wood significantly influenced physico-mechanical wood properties [78], both ring structures [79,80], and fiber share and dimension. The width of the annual ring depends on various factors, such as species, habitat, climate [81], mechanical damage [82], or other disturbances, e.g., regular flooding [79]. According to the literature, the average width of pendulate oak (Quercus robur L.) annual rings ranged between 1.2 mm and 3.2 mm [74,79,80]. Vavrčík et al. [80] reported narrower annual rings in sessile oak, while the cork oak (Quercus suber L.) was characterized by wider rings [83]. Tomczak et al. [46] calculated the average annual ring width from drilled increment cores on post-agricultural and forest land. The results show around 1.4 mm wider annual rings on FA (3.9 mm) than in FL (2.5 mm). In this study, the difference between post-agricultural (2.3 mm) and forest (2.2 mm) land was barely visible. In the literature, oak wood vessels are classified in two dimensions by diameter—small and large sized. According to the Holzatlas [73], the diameter of small vessels ranges between 30 and 140 μm, while large vessels are characterized by diameters from 150 up to 350 μm. Brunetti et al. [75] described that the diameter of sessile oak vessels depends on early and latewood classification between 197 and 269 μm. The average vessel diameter, both small and large, measured in this study, was similar to that found in the literature. However, large vessels measured in wood collected from post-agricultural land had lumen larger by almost 3% than vessels from forest land, but it was not significant. With small vessels, the diameter on FA was smaller by 8% and was significant. The fibers are the most crucial anatomical element from a wood quality point of view. In oak wood, they cover the largest surface. The fiber length was determined by Wagenführ [73] from 1230 up to 1740 μm. The average length of fiber on both FA and FL was similar to that found in the literature, although the measured range of fiber length was wider: 501–1838 μm on forest land and 535–1915 μm on post-agricultural land. Brunetti et al. [75] also noticed shorter fibers than Wagenführ [73]. According to Raczkowska and Fabisiak [84], the variation in fiber length changes positively from the pith into the bark direction. A similar tendency was observed in this study.
In the case of chemical components, the content of cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose was examined. Both results from samples collected on post-agricultural and forest lands are similar to those described in the literature: cellulose 37.6%–42.8%, lignin 24.9%–34.3%, and hemicellulose 19.0%–25.5% [73,85,86]. The changes in the cross-section within trees from selected land types were not significant. However, an increase in the lignin content with a simultaneous decrease in the cellulose content was observed. These changes also correspond to the results of mechanical strength at the stem cross-section that was found. According to Krzysik [87], cellulose provides higher strength to the skeletal tissue, especially against bending. In young tissue, the cellulose cell membranes are affixed by pectin compounds, which form a highly swelling intercellular layer (middle lamina). In mature wood tissue, the gluing substance is lignin, which is less resistant from a mechanical point of view. The differences between land types were observed, especially concerning the cellulose content, where differences vary between 2.3% and 4.8% depending on the percentage of the cross-cross section. Regarding lignin, a higher content was observed on post-agricultural land on the cross-section of the trunk in the direction from pith to bark by 0.25%, 2.2%, and 1.4%, respectively, unlike for the case of forest land. In the case of hemicellulose, almost all observed differences between FL and FA were below 1%. However, this comparison has not been made before, so it should be confirmed by other studies.
Evaluation of wood production potential on post-agricultural land is a crucial topic [20]. First, due to the steadily growing demand for wood [5]. Second, the continual ongoing limitations of wood harvesting on forest land—according to the EU climate package “Fit for 55” [88], yet above all, there is still a high accessibility of ready-for afforestation abandoned agricultural land all over Europe [7,89]. It should be noted that measured properties decrease rapidly above 70% of the position on the cross-section. This may be used as a prediction factor for fixing the management of wood harvesting on afforested post-agricultural land harvested prior, since the properties of wood are significantly depreciating. This study presents detailed data on pendulate oak in specific stand conditions and age in western Poland. Although the number of model trees was small, the measurements were extensive, yielding reliable results. These findings can be further validated by future studies, which should include sessile oak and consider more study plots.

5. Conclusions

This study presents exclusive data on the mechanical properties and anatomical structure of oak wood, specifically focusing on the cross-section of the trunk from post-agricultural areas. By considering the physico-mechanical properties, such as density, bending strength, and modulus of elasticity, it can be concluded that historical agricultural land use has a negligible impact on the technical quality of wood. The measured properties of the tested wood showed similar radial variability within both types of land. Statistical analysis revealed significant disparities in small vessel diameter and fiber length, favoring trees from post-agricultural land. Despite this, the variations were not observable in the physico-mechanical properties. The large vessels exhibited comparable diameter and length measurements in both FA and FL. This study shows that post-agricultural land can be effectively used as an alternative area for producing high-quality wood from pendulate oak for industrial purposes. However, at the cross-section above the trunk’s halfway point, the MOR of wood from post-agricultural land decreases by over 30%, and the density is likely lower. These observed issues may lead to the affirmation that oak trees growing on post-agricultural land could be cultivated in shorter rotations than on forest land. However, this issue should be confirmed in future studies, together with the influence of various oak provenances.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.T., A.T., and P.M.; methodology, K.T., A.T., and P.M.; validation, K.T., A.T., P.M., J.C., and Z.V.; formal analysis, K.T. and A.T.; investigation, K.T., M.K., and P.M.; data curation, K.T., P.M., and M.K.; writing—original draft preparation, K.T., A.T., P.M., J.C., Z.V., and M.K.; writing—review and editing, K.T., A.T., P.M., J.C., and Z.V.; visualization, K.T.; supervision, A.T.; funding acquisition, A.T. and J.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available upon request from the first author.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the staff of the Pniewy Forest Districts for their help with the experiment. The study was supported by Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences Czech University of Life Sciences Prague.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Wood samples processing: (A–C) cutting and grinding boards from the core board; (D,E) selection and marking of wood samples.
Figure 1. Wood samples processing: (A–C) cutting and grinding boards from the core board; (D,E) selection and marking of wood samples.
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Figure 2. (A) Radial variability in wood density on former agricultural (in blue) and forest (in green) lands; (B) Descriptive density statistics for wood collected from both types of land. Whiskers correspond to minimum and maximum values, boxes represent the 1st and 3rd quartile values, midlines indicate the median, and the black dot represents the mean.
Figure 2. (A) Radial variability in wood density on former agricultural (in blue) and forest (in green) lands; (B) Descriptive density statistics for wood collected from both types of land. Whiskers correspond to minimum and maximum values, boxes represent the 1st and 3rd quartile values, midlines indicate the median, and the black dot represents the mean.
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Figure 3. (A) Radial variability in bending strength on former agricultural (in blue) and forest (in green) lands; (B) Descriptive statistics for bending strength of wood collected from both types of land. Whiskers correspond to minimum and maximum values, boxes represent the 1st and 3rd quartile values, midlines indicate the median, and the black dot represents the mean.
Figure 3. (A) Radial variability in bending strength on former agricultural (in blue) and forest (in green) lands; (B) Descriptive statistics for bending strength of wood collected from both types of land. Whiskers correspond to minimum and maximum values, boxes represent the 1st and 3rd quartile values, midlines indicate the median, and the black dot represents the mean.
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Figure 4. (A) Radial variability in modulus of elasticity on former agricultural (in blue) and forest (in green) lands; (B) Descriptive statistics for modulus of elasticity of wood collected from both types of land. Whiskers correspond to minimum and maximum values, boxes represent the 1st and 3rd quartile values, midlines indicate the median, and the black dot represents the mean.
Figure 4. (A) Radial variability in modulus of elasticity on former agricultural (in blue) and forest (in green) lands; (B) Descriptive statistics for modulus of elasticity of wood collected from both types of land. Whiskers correspond to minimum and maximum values, boxes represent the 1st and 3rd quartile values, midlines indicate the median, and the black dot represents the mean.
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Figure 5. Correlation between (A) density [g/cm3] and bending strength [MPa], and (B) modulus of elasticity [MPa] and bending strength [MPa].
Figure 5. Correlation between (A) density [g/cm3] and bending strength [MPa], and (B) modulus of elasticity [MPa] and bending strength [MPa].
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Figure 6. Radial variation in average annual ring width [mm] on former agricultural (in blue) and forest (in green) lands. Whiskers correspond to minimum and maximum values, boxes represent the 1st and 3rd quartile values, midlines indicate the median, and the black dot represents the mean.
Figure 6. Radial variation in average annual ring width [mm] on former agricultural (in blue) and forest (in green) lands. Whiskers correspond to minimum and maximum values, boxes represent the 1st and 3rd quartile values, midlines indicate the median, and the black dot represents the mean.
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Figure 7. Radial variation in (A) diameter of large vessels and (B) length of large vessels on former agricultural (in blue) and forest (in green) lands. Whiskers correspond to minimum and maximum values, boxes represent the 1st and 3rd quartile values, midlines indicate the median, and the black dot represents the mean.
Figure 7. Radial variation in (A) diameter of large vessels and (B) length of large vessels on former agricultural (in blue) and forest (in green) lands. Whiskers correspond to minimum and maximum values, boxes represent the 1st and 3rd quartile values, midlines indicate the median, and the black dot represents the mean.
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Figure 8. Radial variation in (A) diameter of small vessels and (B) length of small vessels on former agricultural (in blue) and forest (in green) lands. Whiskers correspond to minimum and maximum values, boxes represent the 1st and 3rd quartile values, midlines indicate the median, and the black dot represents the mean.
Figure 8. Radial variation in (A) diameter of small vessels and (B) length of small vessels on former agricultural (in blue) and forest (in green) lands. Whiskers correspond to minimum and maximum values, boxes represent the 1st and 3rd quartile values, midlines indicate the median, and the black dot represents the mean.
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Figure 9. Radial variation in fiber length on former agricultural (in blue) and forest (in green) lands. Whiskers correspond to minimum and maximum values, boxes represent the 1st and 3rd quartile values, midlines indicate the median, and the black dot represents the mean.
Figure 9. Radial variation in fiber length on former agricultural (in blue) and forest (in green) lands. Whiskers correspond to minimum and maximum values, boxes represent the 1st and 3rd quartile values, midlines indicate the median, and the black dot represents the mean.
Forests 15 01394 g009
Table 1. Study sites characteristics on former agricultural land (FA) and forest land (FL)—(according to Forest Data Bank (FDB) of Poland—www.bdl.lasy.gov.pl, accessed on 1 July 2024).
Table 1. Study sites characteristics on former agricultural land (FA) and forest land (FL)—(according to Forest Data Bank (FDB) of Poland—www.bdl.lasy.gov.pl, accessed on 1 July 2024).
Type of ForestLand UseTree AgeAverage Height
[m]		DBH 1
[cm]		Stand Volume
[m3/ha]		Soil TypeAltitude [m a.s.l.]GPS
Coordinates
Mixed forestFL1443163551Epidystric Cambisols101N: 52°34′19″
E: 16°13′10″
Mixed forestFA1442655435Brunic Arenosols (Ochric)91N: 52°32′45″
E: 16°37′35″
FL—forest land; FA—post-agricultural land; 1 Diameter at the breast height.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the width of annual rings measured from samples collected on former agricultural and forest lands.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the width of annual rings measured from samples collected on former agricultural and forest lands.
Type of LandMeanNSt. Dev.MinimumQ1MedianQ3Maximump-Value
FA2.294250.930.491.602.192.885.19NS
FL2.253881.260.591.501.962.549.53
NS—no significant differences; FL—forest land; FA—post-agricultural land.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics of the diameter and length of oak wood vessels measured from samples collected on former agricultural and forest lands.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics of the diameter and length of oak wood vessels measured from samples collected on former agricultural and forest lands.
VesselVariableType of LandMeanNSt. Dev.MinimumQ1MedianQ3Maximump-Value
Large vesselsDiameterFA31122671118259311367506NS
FL30323075106251298355635
LengthFA36222669216305374408535NS
FL37623074184324374428604
Small vesselsDiameterFA45225122337425385<0.001
FL492281523404857108
LengthFA40422581179352403457625NS
FL40122891210334401456773
NS—no significant differences; FL—forest land; FA—post-agricultural land.
Table 4. Descriptive statistics of the length of oak wood fiber measured from samples collected from former agricultural and forest lands.
Table 4. Descriptive statistics of the length of oak wood fiber measured from samples collected from former agricultural and forest lands.
Type of LandMeanNSt. Dev.MinimumQ1MedianQ3Maximump-Value
FA12384512395351090124813971915<0.001
FL1073452270501855108212681838
FL—forest land; FA—post-agricultural land.
Table 5. Chemical composition of tested samples [%].
Table 5. Chemical composition of tested samples [%].
Percentage of the Cross-SectionFLFA
255090255090
ExtractivesSolvent: Ethanol; % dry mass7.158.138.587.529.128.41
Substances soluble in 1% NaOH(e.g., hemicelluloses) % dry mass23.1222.4723.0823.2023.4124.70
CelluloseSeifert method (acetylacetone + 1,4-Dioxane); % dry mass42.5243.3239.2238.3338,5636.88
Lignin (Klason) non-soluble in 72% H2SO422.6623.5724.4122.9125.8825.92
FL—forest land; FA—post-agricultural land.
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Tomczak, K.; Mania, P.; Cukor, J.; Vacek, Z.; Komorowicz, M.; Tomczak, A. Wood Quality of Pendulate Oak on Post-Agricultural Land: A Case Study Based on Physico-Mechanical and Anatomical Properties. Forests 2024, 15, 1394. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15081394

AMA Style

Tomczak K, Mania P, Cukor J, Vacek Z, Komorowicz M, Tomczak A. Wood Quality of Pendulate Oak on Post-Agricultural Land: A Case Study Based on Physico-Mechanical and Anatomical Properties. Forests. 2024; 15(8):1394. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15081394

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tomczak, Karol, Przemysław Mania, Jan Cukor, Zdeněk Vacek, Magdalena Komorowicz, and Arkadiusz Tomczak. 2024. "Wood Quality of Pendulate Oak on Post-Agricultural Land: A Case Study Based on Physico-Mechanical and Anatomical Properties" Forests 15, no. 8: 1394. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15081394

APA Style

Tomczak, K., Mania, P., Cukor, J., Vacek, Z., Komorowicz, M., & Tomczak, A. (2024). Wood Quality of Pendulate Oak on Post-Agricultural Land: A Case Study Based on Physico-Mechanical and Anatomical Properties. Forests, 15(8), 1394. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15081394

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