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Review

Engineered Bamboo Building Materials: Types, Production, and Applications

by
Mahdi Hosseini
1,2,
Milan Gaff
3,4,*,
Yang Wei
1,2,* and
Chaoyu Tu
5
1
College of Civil Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
2
Jiangsu Carbon Sequestration Materials and Structural Technology of Bamboo & Wood Research Center, Nanjing 210037, China
3
Department of Furniture, Design and Habitat Brno, Mendel University in Brno, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
4
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Experimental Centre, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thakurova 7, 166 29 Prague, Czech Republic
5
School of Engineering Sciences, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 114 28 Stockholm, Sweden
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2025, 16(4), 662; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16040662
Submission received: 6 March 2025 / Revised: 28 March 2025 / Accepted: 8 April 2025 / Published: 10 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novelties in Wood Engineering and Forestry—2nd Edition)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The challenges highlighted at the 29th Conference of the Parties (COP29) emphasize the importance of using renewable resources in the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry. The building and construction sector is a major contributor to environmental pollution, with most emissions stemming from the extraction, transportation, production, and disposal of construction materials. As a result, developing renewable building materials is essential. In the past decade, bamboo has gained significant attention from researchers due to its strength, sustainability, high yield, and rapid growth. Bamboo in its original form has been used in construction for centuries, and recent innovations have led to the creation of engineered bamboo materials designed for more versatile applications. Researchers have been focused on understanding the physical and mechanical properties of engineered bamboo to assess its potential as a sustainable alternative to traditional building materials. However, modern practitioners are still unfamiliar with engineered bamboo materials, their types, and where they can be used. This article highlights the most widely researched engineered bamboo materials that have been used in the construction of small architectural forms and bigger structures. It provides an overview of common engineered bamboo building materials, namely laminated bamboo lumber, laminated bamboo sheets, parallel strand bamboo, bamboo mat boards, and bamboo particleboards, and their manufacturing processes and applications, offering valuable information for current practitioners and future research.

1. Introduction

In November 2024, the 29th Conference of the Parties (COP29) was held in Baku, where crucial decisions were made to address and mitigate the climate crisis [1]. Among the discussed issues, particular emphasis was placed on preserving land and forest resources, which are under increasing pressure due to the global demand for land and materials [2,3]. Research reports highlight that the construction sector is one of the largest contributors to carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, with Europe and the USA accounting for 40%–50% of greenhouse gas emissions while consuming 40% of raw materials and primary energy and generating 22% of hazardous waste [4,5,6,7,8]. In China, government measures to stimulate the construction sector have also contributed to the increase in CO2 emissions [9,10,11,12]. On a global scale, the construction sector is responsible for consuming 32% of resources and producing 39% of energy-related CO2 emissions [13,14]. Carbon emissions from buildings are primarily driven by the demand for materials and energy. Material production and building construction account for 10%–15% of global energy use throughout a building’s life cycle and 86% of energy use during the operating phase [10,15]. Considering the high level of pollution caused by the construction sector, a series of measures were adopted at the conference, which will play an essential role in mitigating climate change [10,16]. Particular attention was given to promoting the use of bio-based materials, such as biocomposites and other low-carbon alternatives [17,18,19].
Over the past decade, scientists have made significant progress in developing new biocomposites as viable replacements for traditional unsustainable construction materials. Bamboo has emerged as a standout option due to its exceptional characteristics that align with sustainability goals [1,2,3,4,5,6]. Bamboo is neither a typical grass nor a tree but a woody grass with extraordinary mechanical strength and eco-friendly properties [20]. Its high yield, rapid growth rate, and potential to replace wood make it an effective solution for reducing pressure on global forest reserves and combating deforestation [20,21,22]. Compared to timber, bamboo boasts the highest carbon sequestration capacity and reaches full maturity and optimal strength within just 3–8 years [21,23,24,25]. The strength of bamboo in its natural form can be compared to that of mild steel, cast iron, aluminum alloys, and wood [26,27,28]. The tensile strength and modulus of elasticity (MOE) parallel to the grain of Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) can reach up to 309 MPa and 27.4 GPa in tension. In compression, the strength and MOE values range from 48 to 114 MPa and from 3.6 to 11 GPa, respectively. In bending, the strength ranges from 50 to 132 MPa, with a corresponding MOE of 7.1–18.2 GPa, while the shear strength is 15–20 MPa [29,30,31]. Figure 1 shows a comparison of the mechanical properties of giant timber bamboo (Phyllostachys bambusoides) with those of conventional construction materials [21,32,33,34].
The possibilities of bamboo use are surprisingly diverse. Since ancient times, bamboo has been used in food, fabric, furniture, and decorations, as well as in the construction of houses and bridges [35,36]. Over the past decade, various types of innovative bamboo-based materials, such as laminated bamboo lumber, bamboo scrimber, plybamboo, etc., commonly referred to as engineered bamboo, have been introduced in the construction sector. Engineered bamboo materials differ in their manufacturing processes, leading to relative variations in mechanical properties [37,38,39]. Nevertheless, they all share the versatility to be used in a wide range of shapes and sizes, with physical and mechanical characteristics comparable to those of timber and glue-laminated wood products [40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47]. Table 1 shows the selected mechanical properties of engineered bamboo and wood-based materials. The data for engineered bamboo and wood-based materials were taken from Dauletbek et al. [48,49].
As shown in Table 1, the mechanical properties of engineered bamboo materials are comparable to those of traditional wood, with a coefficient of variation within 10% [48]. The variations in strength can be attributed to factors such as the density and thickness of bamboo strips, their position within the culm, the growth portion, treatment methods, and the arrangement of strips, all of which influence the material’s mechanical performance [48,65].
In the past decade, extensive research has been conducted on the physical properties of engineered bamboo, with a particular focus on its hygroscopicity. This property significantly influences the mechanical performance, dimensional stability, and durability of bamboo-based materials. Bamboo is a heterogeneous anisotropic material [66]. Its physical and mechanical properties differ significantly depending on the longitudinal and radial directions of the culm, growth portion, and different bamboo species [43,66,67,68]. Its basic density ranges from 0.4 to 0.8 g/cm3, primarily influenced by its internal structure [66]. Typically, the density increases from the inner to the outer layers and from the bottom to the top of the culm [66,69].
Due to the hierarchical structure of bamboo, numerous studies have investigated its hygroscopic behavior at various scales. On a macro scale, bamboo is considered orthotropic [67]. Similar to wood, the dimensional shrinkage of bamboo varies along tangential, radial, and longitudinal directions and is closely related to fiber distribution [66,67]. Previous studies show that longitudinal shrinkage is relatively small, ranging from 0.12% to 0.16%, while tangential shrinkage ranges from 6% to 20% and radial shrinkage ranges from 5% to 14% [67]. Tangential shrinkage and swelling are generally about half as much as radial shrinkage and significantly less pronounced in the longitudinal direction [66,69].
On a micro scale, bamboo shows non-uniform hygroscopic behavior due to its functionally graded structure, characterized by varying fiber fractions between the inner and outer layers [67,69]. Fiber cells, which have thicker walls, tend to swell the most and significantly influence the overall dimensional changes in bamboo [67,69]. Consequently, the outer part of the bamboo culm, with its higher fiber density and content, is more prone to dimensional changes during drying compared to the inner and middle portions of the culm wall [43,66,67,69].
According to reports [48,70,71] and the Web of Science database, research interest in bamboo as a construction material has been rapidly growing over the past decade. As shown in Figure 2a, over 6694 full-length research articles on various search queries related to engineered bamboo were published between 2014 and 2024.
Such rapid growth in research is driven not only by the sustainability of engineered bamboo but also by the need for new innovative materials to meet essential criteria such as superior mechanical and physical properties, safety, durability, and cost-effectiveness [72,73,74,75,76]. Due to increasing research in this field, modern practitioners are overwhelmed by numerous proposals and a lack of clear guidance on bamboo-based products [49,77,78]. In China alone, over 10,000 bamboo products have been registered across 100 different categories, ranging from medicine to construction [78]. With the rapid expansion of the bamboo industry, the issue of inconsistent and ambiguous terminology has become so significant that the Chinese government is in the process of developing a dedicated national standard (GB/T 36394-2018 [79]) CS/GB 2009 [78]. According to reports, limited international standards and the lack of a commonly accepted nomenclature for engineered bamboo materials have led to confusion among suppliers, scientists, and consumers and hindered global collaboration in the research and practical application of the materials [78,80,81,82].
To address this issue, scholars have published numerous reviews on various engineered bamboo materials. However, these studies have primarily focused on specific materials and their characteristics, such as mechanical and physical properties, manufacturing processes, earthquake resistance, etc. [34,48,49,60,66,83,84,85,86]. Liu et al. [78] introduced standardized terminology for engineered bamboo products, including its components and manufacturing processes, with equivalents in English, Spanish, and Chinese. Khajouei-Nezhad et al. [87] analyzed the current state of manufacturing and proposed a classification system for engineered bamboo products based on their structure. Li et al. [88] and Huang [89], in their books, provided comprehensive reviews of bamboo materials used in the construction industry.
The purpose of current research Is to provide an overview of the most studied engineered bamboo materials, their production methods, and real-world application examples. This study aims to examine all review articles published over the past decade, as they provide the most comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge on engineered bamboo products. The search query used was TS = (“bamboo” and “engineering” or “bamboo” and “building” or “bamboo” and “construction” or “bamboo” and “composite”), publication years = “2014–2024”, languages = “English”, DT = “reviews”. A search of the Web of Science database on 7 January 2025 identified 43 review articles (Figure 2b). As shown in Figure 2b, the review articles found mentions of materials such as bamboo–cementitious composites (BCCs), bamboo-fiber-reinforced polymers (BFRPs), bamboo–timber composites (BTCs), laminated bamboo lumber (LBL), cross-laminated bamboo (CLB), glued laminated bamboo (glubam), laminated bamboo sheets (LBSs), parallel-strand bamboo (PSB), also known as bamboo scrimber, bamboo mat boards (BMBs), plybamboo, and bamboo particleboard (BP), making them the most extensively studied materials to date [90]. Many of these names refer to the same material, which is found in the literature under different names. This article focuses exclusively on engineered bamboo building materials, emphasizing the most commonly used types in the construction sector. Therefore, bamboo-based composites such as BCCs, BFRPs, and BTCs are outside the scope of this discussion. We aim to provide a clear overview of engineered bamboo building materials, including their fundamentals, production methods, and real-world applications. By enhancing understanding among practitioners and decision-makers in architecture and construction, we seek to promote collaboration and further development in the engineered bamboo industry. It is important to note that this research is not comprehensive and does not overview the mechanical and physical properties of the materials discussed.

2. Selected Types of Engineered Bamboo Materials

The term “engineered bamboo” refers to a wide range of composite materials made by cutting the round bamboo culm into smaller pieces, which are then processed and pressed into solid and consistent composite panels using adhesives commonly used in the wood industry [90,91,92,93]. Engineered bamboo can be utilized both as primary structural members, such as building frames and sheathing, and as secondary members, including finishes, flooring, and decorative applications [49,94,95,96,97,98].
Engineered bamboo is primarily defined by the components from which it is made. Figure 3 shows the types of components, or elements, that make up the various engineered bamboo composites. A more detailed description of the components can be found in Liu et al. [78].
Engineered bamboo building products can be subdivided into three main categories: laminated bamboo (LBL, CLB, glubam, laminated strip bamboo, laminated bamboo sheets, etc.), reconstituted densified bamboo (PSB and bamboo scrimber), and bamboo boards (bamboo mat boards, bamboo particleboards, plybamboo, etc.) [78,87]. To distinguish between different types of engineered bamboo materials, it is essential to first understand their production methods.

2.1. LBL

LBL is a solid void-free engineered bamboo material made of bamboo strips glued and pressed into structural members with fixed widths and thicknesses [21,87,93]. As shown in Figure 4, the strips in LBL can be arranged horizontally, vertically, or in a mixed fashion (cross-laminated). In the literature, this material is also known as bamboo glulam, glubam, laminated strip bamboo, and cross-laminated bamboo [48,49,87,102,103].
The general processing technology of LBL is as follows: selection of raw bamboo; splitting open; flattening or primary milling; carbonization; drying; secondary milling, sizing, unit assembling, and pressing; structural member assembling and pressing; and other processing [21,93].
Selecting high-quality raw bamboo is a crucial step in the LBL production process as it directly impacts the final product’s performance. The ideal bamboo should be round, thick, and straight. Commonly used genera for LBL production include Phyllostachys, Dendrocalamus, Bambusa, Guadua, and Gigantochloa. The optimal age for harvesting bamboo is strictly between 3 and 5 years [90]. At this stage, its physical and mechanical properties—such as density, moisture content, linear dry shrinkage, flexural strength, flexural modulus of elasticity, and compressive strength along the grain—are stable, with minimal variation among culms of the same age [88,90]. Once bamboo exceeds six years, its silicon content increases, making the texture more brittle and reducing its overall strength [88].
Cutting and splitting open: the selected bamboo culms are cut into fixed-length sections, typically ranging from 1 to 2 m [90]. This method involves dividing the culms into narrow strips of a fixed width [93,102].
Primary milling: narrow bamboo splits with rectangular cross-sections undergo a milling process to remove the outer and inner layers and obtain a consistent rectangular strip, enhancing its bonding properties [90,93,102].
Carbonization: traditionally, bamboo strips underwent boiling and bleaching to remove nutrients, preventing mold and insect infestation [90,102]. While effective, this method was time-consuming and had a negative environmental impact [88]. As a result, many factories have replaced it with carbonization. Carbonization, also known as caramelization, is the first part of the typical industrial drying process of bamboo, which includes carbonization, kiln drying, and equalization in an open space. Carbonization involves heating fresh bamboo strips in an 8 m long high-temperature saturated steam tank under a pressure range of 0.8–1.0 MPa for 110 min [104]. In this method, bamboo strips are exposed to high-pressure conditions, causing the decomposition of organic compounds such as sugar, starch, and protein [90,102].
This process deprives mold and insects of their food source while also eliminating insect eggs and fungal spores. After treatment, the bamboo strips take on a rich bronze color, often referred to as “caramelized bamboo”, which is highly popular in the market. Unlike traditional boiling and bleaching, carbonization retains soluble organic matter, resulting in a higher density. While the process enhances surface hardness, prolonged exposure to high temperatures slightly reduces overall strength [91].
Drying and secondary milling: after carbonization, bamboo strips are subjected to cooling for 15 min. Then, the caramelized strips are dried in a tunnel kiln at 60 °C for 144 h [104]. Drying of bamboo strips prevents linear shrinkage, cracking, and deformation over time. It also helps inhibit mold and insect growth while enhancing bonding strength. After primary drying at the kiln, they rest in an open space at 17–22 °C and 70% humidity for 24 h to balance their moisture [104]. As a result, the moisture content of bamboo strips reaches 8%–10% [93]. Next, they are steamed at 1.1 MPa (184 °C) for 80 min in the same tank used for caramelization. Finally, the strips go back into the kiln for a second drying stage at 57–62 °C for 22 h [104]. Once primary milling is complete, the dimensions of the strips become stable. During secondary milling, any remaining outer and inner layers of the bamboo are completely removed [88].
Sizing, unit assembling, and pressing: a mechanical roller applicator is used to evenly distribute adhesive on the surface of bamboo strips, ensuring uniform coverage and preventing defects associated with manual glue application [90,102]. Studies have shown that the type of glue significantly impacts the physical and mechanical properties of LBL. Melamine–urea–formaldehyde (MUF) and phenol–formaldehyde (PF) provide the strongest adhesion, making them the preferred choices for LBL compared to alternatives such as emulsion polymer isocyanate (EPI), polyurethane (PU), hybrid polymer adhesives, and polyvinyl acetate (PVA) [91,105]. PF performs particularly well in exterior applications due to its low wettability, while PVA is recommended for interior use, where exposure to moisture is minimal [106]. Sinha et al. [107] highlighted the critical role of adhesive selection in LBL structural applications, especially in full-sized beams. Their study found that LBL beams failed due to delamination when EPI glue was used, as it was unable to effectively transmit stress, leading to cracks between layers. The type and amount of adhesive applied are typically determined by the manufacturer. Research suggests that the glue’s spread rate is a key factor influencing internal bond strength [91,108]. Therefore, optimizing the spread rate for each adhesive type is essential to ensure structural integrity.
Structural member assembling and pressing: before pressing and forming a structural member, units must be extended to achieve the required dimensions of the final product [102,109]. Figure 5 illustrates five commonly used extension methods for bamboo units.
Other processing: the finished LBL members undergo anti-corrosion and fire prevention treatments to enhance their durability and performance. Figure 6 showcases examples of completed structural members made from LBL.

2.2. LBS

An LBS is a wide engineered bamboo sheet made from multiple layers of laminated bamboo strips and flattened bamboo culms [78,87]. It can be laminated either along the edge or the face and can be unidirectional or cross-laminated (Figure 7).
According to Liu et al. [78], this material is often incorrectly referred to as “plywood”. Due to significant differences in fabrication and material properties compared to wood-based plywood, Liu et al. [78] described this material as a “laminated bamboo sheet”, while in other studies, this material is referred to as flattened culm laminated bamboo or just LBL [87,88,93]. Liu et al. [78] and Khajouei-Nezhad et al. [87] have also made a clear distinction between this material and LBL. It should be noted that flattened bamboo can be used to create not only wide LBS members but also other structural elements with fixed sizes, such as beams and columns (Figure 8).
The production process for LBS is similar to that of LBL, with one key distinction: flattened bamboo, in addition to bamboo strips, can also be used in LBS manufacturing [92,93,110]. To create crack-free flattened bamboo, whole or halved bamboo culms undergo a steam-softening process [110]. This is part of a semi-automated procedure that involves hydraulic piston node plate removal, internal profiling, steam softening, and flattening using specially designed machines with ovate rollers [100,110,111]. Afterward, the flattened bamboo sheets are then milled.

2.3. PSB

PSB is a solid material made of compressed, adhesive-coated, and full-length bamboo bundles that maintain the original arrangement of fibers (Figure 9).
This material is exceptionally hard and dense, making it unsuitable for general construction [85] (Table 2). During the manufacturing of bamboo scrimber, the thick fiber bundles are highly compacted, sometimes reaching up to twice their original density [85]. Its final density can reach up to 1200 kg/m3 [78].
As shown in Table 2, the density and compressive strength of PSB are considerably higher compared to that of bamboo and wood materials. The variations in compressive strength may be attributed to factors such as sample size, bamboo species, manufacturing methods, and the final density of the material.
Molding is a distinguishing characteristic of the PSB manufacturing process, setting it apart from other types of engineered bamboo [116]. However, this process imposes size limitations on PSB, which in turn restricts its potential for structural applications [88,116]. In the literature, this material is found under the following names: reconstituted bamboo, densified bamboo, bamboo scrimber, strand-woven bamboo, bamboo restructured lumber, parallel-strand-woven bamboo, laminated bamboo bundle lumber, and bamboo steel [60,78,88,92].
The general manufacturing process of PSB includes selecting raw bamboo; cutting and splitting out; milling; crushing; cooking or carbonization; drying; sizing; assembling and pressing; and other processing [85,90,117]. Cutting, splitting out, milling, cooking or carbonization, and drying are similar to that of LBL production [90,116]. The primary distinction between the manufacturing processes of PSB and LBL is that PSB production is not constrained by the diameter of the raw bamboo material [60,88]. This allows for a broader selection of bamboo culms for production. However, the age requirement remains strictly the same for both materials [88].
Crushing: manual hammering and rolling are commonly used methods for crushing bamboo into fibers [60,116]. However, after manual hammering, the fibers may remain partially attached and not fully separated [60,116]. In contrast, the rolling method produces more relaxed fibers with minimal breakage [90,91]. As a result, PSB made from rolled bamboo fibers exhibits superior physical and mechanical properties compared to that made from hammered fibers. Recently, researchers have developed advanced equipment capable of simultaneously removing both the inner and outer layers of bamboo, significantly enhancing the efficiency of PSB production [91,93].
Sizing: bamboo fibers are typically immersed in a resin solution under normal atmospheric pressure [90]. The process begins by placing bamboo bundles in a specialized hanging cage, which is then submerged in a soaking tank. After approximately 15 min, the fibers are removed, and any excess resin is cleared [93]. The gluing process is relatively simple and lacks a standardized approach. Some manufacturers have introduced ventilation pipes at the bottom of the dipping tank to enhance resin circulation and ensure uniform absorption [60,88]. Recently, researchers have developed intelligent, numerically controlled technologies to automate the hanging, dipping, and leaching of bamboo fibers, improving efficiency and consistency in production [88].
Assembling and pressing: the pressing process for PSB involves either cold pressing prior to thermal curing or direct hot pressing [60,118]. Cold pressing equipment typically includes a mold, a loading mechanism, and a mold removal system, while thermal curing requires a hot press and a forming device. Direct hot pressing, on the other hand, utilizes a single-layer or multi-layer hot press along with an oil or high-frequency heating system [60,118]. The overall pressing process is similar to that used for LBL; however, PSB unit assembly must be performed on a specialized matrix or an empty base plate of a specific thickness. The type and dimensions of the pressing plate determine the final shape of the PSB, with rectangular and flat plates being the most commonly used [88].
Compared to LBL, PSB has less stringent requirements for raw bamboo materials, allowing for the use of a wider range of bamboo species in production [88,119]. As a result, the overall manufacturing cost of PSB is lower than that of LBL [88]. Additionally, advancements in mechanization, automation, and digital technology are expected to further reduce production costs, making PSB more viable for structural applications in the future.

2.4. BMB

A BMB, also referred to as plybamboo in the literature, is a cross-laminated, hot-pressed panel similar to plywood [71,119]. It typically consists of woven bamboo curtains in the outer layers and stitched bamboo curtains in the inner layers (Figure 10) [120]. In some cases, it may also include wood veneer plies and is often finished with a phenolic paper overlay. Various terms are used in the literature to describe this material, including plybamboo, bamboo curtain plywood, bamboo plywood, bamboo mat woven plywood, bamboo mat plywood, and bamboo mat corrugated plywood [78,119,120].
The general manufacturing process of BMBs includes raw bamboo selection; cutting and splitting out; milling; cooking or carbonization; drying; weaving the mat or curtain; gluing; assembling, molding, and pressing; and other processing [120].
The manufacturing process of BMB follows a similar sequence to other engineered bamboo materials, with the key distinction occurring during the mat or curtain weaving stage. Traditionally, BMB mats are created by arranging bamboo strips in layers and applying pressure [120]. Depending on product requirements, various weaving patterns can be used, including cross-stitch, twill-stitch, loop-stitch, and round-stitch, with cross-stitch and twill-stitch being the most commonly utilized techniques [88,120]. Figure 11 shows schematic diagrams of the cross-stitch and twill-stitch methods, respectively.
The production of BMBs relies heavily on manual labor, resulting in a low mechanization rate, inconsistent product performance, and limited output [88]. To address these challenges, experts have begun developing automated weaving machines to enhance the efficiency and quality of BMB manufacturing.

2.5. BP

BP is produced using the same manufacturing principles as wood particleboard [121,122]. It is made from various pretreated bamboo residues bonded with urea–formaldehyde (UF), MUF, or PF resins [91,121,122]. The production process includes slicing, rolling, sizing, paving, and hot pressing [121]. Compared to traditional wood particleboard, bamboo particleboard offers superior strength and lower water absorption and expansion rates [88].
Other types of engineered bamboo include bamboo-oriented strand boards (BOSBs) and bamboo fiberboard [78,88]. A BOSB is made with strands oriented in the surface layers, while the core consists of randomly oriented strands, following the same manufacturing process as a wood-based OSB [34,78]. Bamboo fiberboard is made from individual bamboo fibers that are bonded and hot-pressed, using a similar process to that of wood-based medium-density fiberboard (MDF) [78]. These materials are typically used for interior applications, such as paneling or flooring underlays, and are not considered in the context of this study.

3. Application

3.1. Application of LBL

LBL is versatile and can be applied in various fields, such as furniture, flooring, formwork, decoration, and civil engineering. It is also used in the production of everyday items such as USB flash drive cases, mouse bodies, and mobile phone shells [88]. The physical and mechanical properties of LBL are on par with hardwoods, making it suitable for buildings (Table 1) [48,64]. Additionally, LBL is beneficial for large-scale structures requiring components with substantial cross-sections [93,102,123]. LBL products can be custom-made in various shapes and sizes to fulfill specific design requirements, providing significant flexibility in building design. This opens up possibilities for long-span structures and innovative architectural solutions. Recently, the use of LBL has been growing, with examples such as a private villa in Saudi Arabia (Figure 12a) and several structures in China that utilized LBL for both structural and facing materials (Figure 12b–d) [124]. Despite these advantages, the high manufacturing cost and energy-intensive production processes remain significant barriers to the widespread adoption of LBL in structural applications.
A two-story office building was constructed at Nanjing Forestry University, China, featuring a structural system composed of LBL beams and PSB columns, as illustrated in Figure 13 [83,93]. This two-story structure was designed using a structural system with an LBL beam and a PSB column frame, with a floor plan measuring 9.2 m x 11.5 m [83,93]. LBL members with a rectangular cross-section of 70 mm × 280 mm serve as the primary beams, spanning up to 3400 mm, while secondary beams with a cross-section of 70 mm × 200 mm have a maximum span of 4000 mm [83,93]. The PSB columns, measuring 130 mm × 150 mm in cross-section, are extended longitudinally using glued stepped joints at intervals of 1.2–2.0 m and reinforced with screws. Metal connectors secure the LBL beams to the PSB columns, and bamboo curtain composite panels are used as floor diaphragms [83].
A space frame structural system was constructed in China using glubam girders (Figure 14). The structure includes a primary girder measuring 16.5 m in length, with a cantilever extending 7000 mm. This girder is constructed using a glubam member with a rectangular cross-section of 120 mm × 700 mm [93,102].
A serpentine corridor was built in Tongling, China, as shown in Figure 15. The entire structure, including its girders and columns, was constructed using LBL materials. Covering a total area of approximately 300 m2, the corridor was originally designed as a reading space within a children’s park [93].
The “Bamboo Cubic” facade renovation project was carried out in Huangqiao Square, Shaowu City, Fujian Province, China, featuring curved LBL members (Figure 16).
Innovative connection techniques enabled the installation of a distinctive curved design, requiring the precise prefabrication of LBL components. The bamboo frame structure reached a total height of 16.86 m, demonstrating LBL’s versatility as both a primary structural element and an aesthetic feature [125]. The integration of steel and LBL frames in the “Bamboo Cubic” project further highlighted the potential for future hybrid construction methods.

3.2. Application of PSB

The application prospects of PSB are similar to those of LBL. The specific features of PSB allow for the creation of various beautiful patterns on the surface of the material to meet different market needs and customer requests. Furniture is an important application field of PSB [60,88]. The density of PSB is greater than that of mahogany and exceeds 1.0 g/cm2 [88]. It can replace the traditional high-quality hardwoods used for furniture manufacturing, which is conducive to forest conservation (Figure 17a).
According to previous studies, it has excellent physical and mechanical properties and environmental performance [60]. A standard application of PSB is outdoor decking and traffic guardrails in transportation areas (Figure 17b,c) [60,116]. Nevertheless, low production costs and automation in manufacturing make it possible for PSB to replace plastic and steel materials used for urban landscape design [116].
The high final density and size limitations caused by the molding stage in the manufacturing process make it difficult to use PSB for structural purposes [88,116]. Nevertheless, an increasing number of experimental residential and public buildings are being constructed with PSB load-bearing members in their structural frames. A notable example is the PSB villa located in Fengxin County, China, designed by Jiangxi Feiyu Bamboo Stock Co. LTD (Figure 18).
A team from Nanjing Forestry University successfully constructed a 12-meter-long reciprocal bridge using engineered bamboo without relying on large mechanical equipment. The bridge’s main structure was built from LBL, while PSB panels were used to form the deck [126]. Instead of metal fasteners, the team employed traditional Chinese mortise-and-tenon joinery to connect the structural components [126]. This construction project aimed to showcase the feasibility and stability of large-span engineered bamboo structures, providing a valuable reference for the advancement of engineered bamboo in construction engineering.

3.3. Application of BMBs and BP

Since the 1950s, BMBs and BP have primarily been used in applications such as building formwork (Figure 19a,b), car underbody plates, carriage floors (Figure 19c,d), packaging boxes, and wall cladding materials [88].
Today, BMBs and BP are widely utilized in structural components. An innovative variation of BMBs developed in India involves impregnating the mats with exterior-grade PF resin and hot-pressing them between corrugated platens to create corrugated roofing for low-cost housing [78]. Moreover, modular BMB-based buildings were designed and constructed by the Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training Institute (IPIRTI) to showcase the application possibilities of bamboo mats in local residential buildings (Figure 20).
Despite the fact that the appearance of experimental buildings still leaves much to be desired, BMBs demonstrate high reliability when used in wall panels, roofing, and flooring. Further research and advancements in processing technologies will improve the aesthetic and functional properties of BMBs, expanding their range of applications.
While BMBs and BP are well-suited for construction sheathing and flooring underlayment, their main current uses are in concrete formwork, shipping container floors, and temporary structures [88,129]. The strength of BMBs is notably higher than that of traditional plywood [129]. BMB molds offer excellent lateral resistance to concrete, resulting in a smooth and flat surface after demolding. Due to its hardness, weather resistance, size stability, and attractive appearance, multilayered BMBs are often used in vehicles. Additionally, BMBs are suitable for packaging mechanical and electrical products, aircraft parts, and other high-precision or civil products.

4. Conclusions

Bamboo has been used for centuries in household items and the construction of houses, bridges, and other infrastructure due to its strength, low cost, and excellent performance comparable to wood. However, the round cross-section of bamboo culms in their natural form presents challenges in structural connections. Over the past decade, engineered bamboo has emerged as a solution, offering beams, columns, and panels that can be made in any size and shape and are suitable for civil engineering applications. These engineered materials possess superior technological properties, including standardized sizes and the ability to be tightly connected. There are various types of engineered bamboo materials available to meet diverse market demands. The physical and mechanical properties of engineered bamboo are on par with wood, yet it is lighter, making installation and transportation faster and more cost-effective. Additionally, the use of engineered bamboo minimizes production waste, leading to economic benefits for manufacturers. Bamboo’s rapid growth and high yield also contribute to the preservation of large forest areas, further enhancing its environmental sustainability.
The most popular types of engineered bamboo include laminated bamboo lumber, laminated bamboo sheets, parallel-strand bamboo, bamboo mat boards, and bamboo particleboard. These materials are widely used for applications such as surface shells, cladding, flooring, and structural elements and have recently been incorporated as load-bearing components in large-scale structures. However, engineered bamboo still faces challenges that require further optimization. Like wood, bamboo needs additional processing to prevent rotting, enhance fire resistance, and improve durability. Compared to wood, the production of engineered bamboo remains energy-intensive, and the use of adhesives containing urea and carbonization treatments can be harmful to the environment. Engineered bamboo is primarily utilized in regions where it is grown, but the high production costs continue to limit its widespread adoption. Despite these challenges, increased research into engineered bamboo is expected to optimize and automate its production processes. This will address the material’s current drawbacks and expand its use in the construction industry.
As research in the field of engineered bamboo grows, the issue of inconsistent and unclear terminology has become a significant concern. The absence of comprehensive international standards and a universally accepted nomenclature for engineered bamboo materials has led to confusion among suppliers, researchers, and consumers. This ambiguity hampers global collaboration in both research and the practical application of engineered bamboo. Numerous materials with identical properties are often found in the literature under different but similar names. To address this challenge, it is essential to establish both national and international standards and implement a consistent terminology for the components, production stages, and final products of engineered bamboo.

Author Contributions

M.H., Conceptualization, Writing—review and editing, Funding acquisition, Investigation; M.G., Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Supervision, Data curation; Y.W., Funding acquisition, Writing—original draft, Conceptualization, Methodology; C.T., Writing—review and editing, software, resources. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Scientific Research Fund of Nanjing Forestry University (Nos. 163050206 and 163050234), the Ministry of Science and Technology of China under the Foreign Young Talents Project (No. QN2021014006L), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52378244), and the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (No. BK20231293). Any research results expressed in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the foundations.

Data Availability Statement

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to report regarding the present study.

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Figure 1. Selected mechanical properties of giant timber bamboo compared to conventional building materials (Dauletbek et al. [34]).
Figure 1. Selected mechanical properties of giant timber bamboo compared to conventional building materials (Dauletbek et al. [34]).
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Figure 2. Existing research on various search queries related to engineered bamboo: (a) full-length research articles via the Web of Science database published from 2014 to 2024; (b) number of mentions of engineered bamboo products in review articles.
Figure 2. Existing research on various search queries related to engineered bamboo: (a) full-length research articles via the Web of Science database published from 2014 to 2024; (b) number of mentions of engineered bamboo products in review articles.
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Forests 16 00662 g003
Figure 3. Engineered bamboo components (the images were taken from free Internet sources, as well as references [87,99,100,101]).
Figure 3. Engineered bamboo components (the images were taken from free Internet sources, as well as references [87,99,100,101]).
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Forests 16 00662 g004
Figure 4. Arrangement of bamboo strips in LBL: (a) horizontal; (b) vertical; and (c) mixed.
Figure 4. Arrangement of bamboo strips in LBL: (a) horizontal; (b) vertical; and (c) mixed.
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Forests 16 00662 g005
Figure 5. Connection types of bamboo strips for lengthening (Li et al. [88]): (a) butt joint; (b) birdsmouth joint; (c) tongue and groove joint; (d) finger joint; (e) nibbed scarf joint.
Figure 5. Connection types of bamboo strips for lengthening (Li et al. [88]): (a) butt joint; (b) birdsmouth joint; (c) tongue and groove joint; (d) finger joint; (e) nibbed scarf joint.
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Figure 6. LBL structural members.
Figure 6. LBL structural members.
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Figure 7. Arrangement of bamboo strips and flattened bamboo in an LBS: (a) horizontally arranged bamboo strips mixed with flattened bamboo; (b,c) vertically arranged bamboo strips mixed with flattened bamboo; (d) arrangement of flattened bamboo.
Figure 7. Arrangement of bamboo strips and flattened bamboo in an LBS: (a) horizontally arranged bamboo strips mixed with flattened bamboo; (b,c) vertically arranged bamboo strips mixed with flattened bamboo; (d) arrangement of flattened bamboo.
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Forests 16 00662 g008
Figure 8. Structural member made of flattened bamboo.
Figure 8. Structural member made of flattened bamboo.
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Figure 9. PSB panel.
Figure 9. PSB panel.
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Figure 10. Plybamboo mat.
Figure 10. Plybamboo mat.
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Figure 11. Schematic diagram of plybamboo weaving.
Figure 11. Schematic diagram of plybamboo weaving.
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Forests 16 00662 g012
Figure 12. Structures made of LBL (Dauletbek et al. [49]): (a) private villa in Saudi Arabia; (b) the world gardening art expo in Beijing, China; (c) Sentai office building in Guangzhou, China; (d) public toilets at Qixia Temple and Zidong Pioneer Park in Nanjing, China.
Figure 12. Structures made of LBL (Dauletbek et al. [49]): (a) private villa in Saudi Arabia; (b) the world gardening art expo in Beijing, China; (c) Sentai office building in Guangzhou, China; (d) public toilets at Qixia Temple and Zidong Pioneer Park in Nanjing, China.
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Forests 16 00662 g013
Figure 13. Frame office with LBL beams and PSB columns: (a) façade of the villa; (b) column-to-beam connection (Hong et al. [83]).
Figure 13. Frame office with LBL beams and PSB columns: (a) façade of the villa; (b) column-to-beam connection (Hong et al. [83]).
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Forests 16 00662 g014
Figure 14. Glubam heavy space frame building (Xiao et al. [102]).
Figure 14. Glubam heavy space frame building (Xiao et al. [102]).
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Forests 16 00662 g015
Figure 15. LBL serpentine corridor: (a) exterior; (b) interior (Sun et al. [93]).
Figure 15. LBL serpentine corridor: (a) exterior; (b) interior (Sun et al. [93]).
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Figure 16. The entrance of “Bamboo Cubic”: (a) outside; (b) inside (Xue et al. [125]).
Figure 16. The entrance of “Bamboo Cubic”: (a) outside; (b) inside (Xue et al. [125]).
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Figure 17. Applications of PSB: (a) furniture; (b) outdoor decking; (c) outdoor guardrails.
Figure 17. Applications of PSB: (a) furniture; (b) outdoor decking; (c) outdoor guardrails.
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Figure 18. PSB villa in Fengxin County, China: (a) villa facade; (b) tenon–mortise joint (Hong et al. [83]).
Figure 18. PSB villa in Fengxin County, China: (a) villa facade; (b) tenon–mortise joint (Hong et al. [83]).
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Forests 16 00662 g019
Figure 19. Application of plybamboo: (a) laminated formwork; (b) plain panel formwork; (c) container floor; (d) carriage floor [127].
Figure 19. Application of plybamboo: (a) laminated formwork; (b) plain panel formwork; (c) container floor; (d) carriage floor [127].
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Forests 16 00662 g020
Figure 20. BMB-based houses at the IPIRTI: (a) a two-story bamboo house; (b) a modular bamboo mat board house [128].
Figure 20. BMB-based houses at the IPIRTI: (a) a two-story bamboo house; (b) a modular bamboo mat board house [128].
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Table 1. Selected mechanical properties of engineered bamboo materials compared to wood-based materials.
Table 1. Selected mechanical properties of engineered bamboo materials compared to wood-based materials.
PropertyLBL
[43,50,51,52,53,54]		PSB
[55,56,57]		LVL
[43,58,59,60]		Glulam
[59,61,62]		WPC
[63]		Douglas Fir
[58]		Teak
[58,64]
Species typePhyllostachys pubescens,
Dendrocalamus strictus		Phyllostachys pubescensDouglas-firDouglas-firPine--
Bending strength parallel to grain (MPa)63.87–128.489.32 ± 4.9254.2–71.748.7426.18580
MOE in bending (MPa)8320–10,91212,656 ± 763.9415,400–19,30015,370410013,4009400
Tensile strength parallel to grain (MPa)90–124118.40–13888.516.5–2611.6107.695–155
MOE in tension parallel to grain (MPa)10,70010,296–13,68013,7909400–11,900300011,600–14,800-
Compressive strength parallel to grain (MPa)29.55–72.6061.76–65.533624–3128.149.941.1
MOE in compression parallel to grain (MPa)8396–11,02211,890–12,630-86003700--
Shear strength parallel to grain (MPa)7.15–17.523.447.342.7–4.38.17.88.9
Note: LVL—laminated veneer lumber, glulam—glued laminated timber, WPS—wood plastic composite.
Table 2. Density of PSB compared to bamboo and wood-based materials with corresponding compressive behavior.
Table 2. Density of PSB compared to bamboo and wood-based materials with corresponding compressive behavior.
MaterialSpeciesDensity (kg/m3)Sample Size (mm)Compression (MPa)MOE (GPa)
PSB [57,112,113,114]Phyllostachys pubescens,
Neosincalamus affinis,
Gigantachloa		980–1250105 × 105 × 315
20 × 20 × 30
50 × 50 × 150		61.8–104.85.3–12.63
LBL [43,54]Phyllostachys pubescens644–68650 × 50 × 200
20 × 20 × 60		55–72.68.4–11
LVL [85]Douglas fir52050 × 50 × 20057-
Agathis [85]Agathis-2.5 × 2.5 × 1024.75-
Douglas fir [58,115]-533–561-49.9-
Scrimber [85]Poplar88520 × 20 × 80101-
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Hosseini, M.; Gaff, M.; Wei, Y.; Tu, C. Engineered Bamboo Building Materials: Types, Production, and Applications. Forests 2025, 16, 662. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16040662

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Hosseini M, Gaff M, Wei Y, Tu C. Engineered Bamboo Building Materials: Types, Production, and Applications. Forests. 2025; 16(4):662. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16040662

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Hosseini, Mahdi, Milan Gaff, Yang Wei, and Chaoyu Tu. 2025. "Engineered Bamboo Building Materials: Types, Production, and Applications" Forests 16, no. 4: 662. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16040662

APA Style

Hosseini, M., Gaff, M., Wei, Y., & Tu, C. (2025). Engineered Bamboo Building Materials: Types, Production, and Applications. Forests, 16(4), 662. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16040662

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