Towards Comprehensive Policy Integration for the Sustainability of Small Islands: A Landscape-Scale Planning Approach for the Galápagos Islands
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Analytical Framework
2.1.1. Unpacking the Concept of Policy Integration
2.1.2. Analytical Framework: Landscape-Scale Planning, Small Islands Sustainability, and Policy Integration
- Aggregation—the extent to which the overall wellbeing of the system as a whole is considered as a premise for the evaluation of policy alternatives and decision making [35]; and
2.2. Methodology
- Understand the context of the case study
- Map institutional arrangements, and
- Explore the structure, scope, goals and policies of the planning instruments.
2.3. Case Study: The Galápagos Province
3. Results
3.1. Institutional Arrangements for Galápagos
3.2. The Galápagos Special Regime (GSR)
4. Assessment of Comprehensiveness of Policy Integration
4.1. Comprehensive Spatial Scale
4.2. Comprehensive Temporal Scale
4.3. Comprehensive Stakeholder Interdependence
4.4. Comprehensive Issues Interdependence
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Territorial Level | Laws | Planning Instruments/Tools |
---|---|---|
Nation | ||
Region |
| |
Province | ||
Canton (Municipalities) | ||
Parish |
|
Appendix B
Function | Territorial Level | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
State | Region | Province | Canton | Parish | |
National defense, internal security, public order | X | ||||
International relationships | X | ||||
Immigration | X | ||||
National planning (strategic) | X | ||||
Formulation of public policies on economy, taxation, customs, designation of the Attorney General, monetary, foreign trade, and indebtedness, education, health, social security, and housing (public policies are formulated by the respective Ministry or National Secretariat) | X | ||||
Natural resources and protected areas | X | ||||
Natural disasters management | X | ||||
Implementation of International treaties | X | ||||
Management of radio spectrum and communications | X | ||||
Management of energy resources (biosecurity and forestry included) | X | ||||
Management of public companies | X | ||||
Development and land use planning | X | X | X | X | |
Watershed management | X | X | |||
Transport planning | X | X | X | ||
Plan, build and maintain road network (urban areas excluded) | X | X | X | ||
Plan, build and maintain street networks in urban areas | X | ||||
Grant legal personality, register and control social organizations | X | ||||
Policy formulation for research, innovation, and technology transfer | X | ||||
Encourage productivity | X | X | |||
Ensure food security | X | ||||
Encourage international cooperation | X | X | X | X | |
Issue regional norms | X | ||||
Environmental management | X | ||||
Management of the irrigation system | X | ||||
Support agriculture | X | ||||
Issue provincial ordinances | X | ||||
Control and regulation of public transport | X | ||||
Provide public services such as water supply, waste management, sewerage and others stablished by the respective law | X | ||||
Plan, build and maintain health and education infrastructure as well as public spaces | X | ||||
Protection of the architectural heritage | X | ||||
Develop and manage of the urban and rural real estate cadastre. | X | ||||
Regulate and control the use of beaches, river and lake banks | X | ||||
Ensure public access to beaches, lakes and rivers | X | ||||
Management of quarry | X | ||||
Management of firemen department | X | ||||
Issue cantonal ordinances | X | ||||
Plan, build and maintain public infrastructure and public spaces | X | ||||
Encourage community-based productive activities | X | ||||
Manage the provisioning of public services conferred by other levels of government | X | ||||
Encourage social organization | X | ||||
Sign agreements and issue resolutions | X |
Appendix C
Stage | Year | Main Events |
---|---|---|
Pre-Hispanic | Prior to 1492 | Galápagos were not inhabited by humans when discovered by the Spaniards. However, there is archeological evidence that indigenous tribes visited Galápagos before. Nevertheless, the origin of the indigenous artifacts found in the islands has not been determined [144]. |
Extractive Exploitation | 1535 | Galápagos Islands are discovered by accident when Panama’s Bishop was travelling from Panama to Lima [145]. |
Following Centuries | Whalers and buccaneers introduced alien species and depleted native species, particularly the giant tortoises [146]. | |
1832 | The Ecuadorian Government claimed the archipelago to be part of its territory [106]. | |
Colonization | 1832–1837 | The first colonization tried to establish a penal colony [144]. |
1835 | British Scientist Charles Darwin visits the Galápagos Islands and studies the very specialized physiological adaptations of finches and giant tortoises across the islands [7]. | |
1859 | Darwin publishes his findings on the book “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” proving the evolutionary theory [7]. | |
1869–1878 | The second colonization tried to start agricultural activities and commerce in Floreana Island [144]. | |
1879–1904 | A third colonization attempt takes place in San Cristobal Island where Manuel J. Cobos tried to stablish a sugar mill. After this, colonization in San Cristobal, Santa Cruz, Floreana and Isabela continues steadily [144]. During the first half of the 20th Century, the main economic activity was agriculture [64]. | |
1926–1929 | Norwegian colonies are established in Floreana and Santa Cruz islands [144]. | |
1929–1934 | A small German colony is established in Floreana [144]. | |
1936 | The Archipelago of Galápagos is declared as Protected Area amid requests from the international scientific community to protect their scientific value. Nevertheless, there were no official institutions assigned to the implementation of such measure [64,106]. | |
1942–1947 | The United States establish a military base in Baltra Islands to protect the Panama Channel [144]. | |
1946–1959 | A penal colony is establish in Isabela [144]. | |
1947–1958 | Naturalist Lack and Eibl-Eibesfeldt encouraged the study the ecological system of Galápagos and demanded more effective protection of the islands [147]. | |
1950s | Fishing becomes the main economic activity in Galápagos attracting a new wave of colonizers and shifting resident from agriculture to the seas [64]. | |
1959 | Creation of the Charles Darwin Research Station in Belgium, and the Charles Darwin Foundation and the Galápagos National Park in Ecuador. However, the Boundaries of the Galápagos National Park were not defined [147] | |
Wilderness Conservation | 1960 | The Galápagos National Park Service and Charles Darwin Foundation started a joint work to protect native species on the islands [64]. |
1969 | First forms of organized tours started [7]. | |
1973 | Creation of the Galápagos Province; the boundaries of the Galápagos National Park were fully defined; the first body of rangers became operative; the first plan for the management of the terrestrial area was created [64]. | |
1974 | The first management plan for the Galápagos National Park was formulated and included provisions to protect a 12 nautical mile buffer around the coastline of the islands [64]. | |
1978 | Galápagos Islands were declared as one of the original eight a World Heritage Sites [105]. | |
1980s | Tourism displaced fishing and agriculture and assumed the role of economic drivers in Galápagos [7,62,64]. Conflicts between the fishing sector and the tourism and conservation sectors begin [64]. | |
1984 | Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute wrote a report advocating for protection of marine areas within a 15 nautical miles buffer around the islands [7]. UNESCO declares Galápagos as Biosphere Reserve [106]. | |
1986 | The report of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute resulted in the creation of the Galápagos Marine Resource Reserve (GMRR), a 15-nautical miles buffer around the islands. Nevertheless, the GMRR did not have a protected area status [64]. | |
1990s | During this decade, struggles between fishermen and the Galápagos National Park Service resulted sever conflicts and even violent actions [64,105]. | |
1994 | The Ecuadorian Government unsuccessfully request the addition of the marine reserve to the World Heritage Site [105]. | |
1998 | The First Organic Law for the Special Regime of the Galápagos Province (LOREG) is passed; the Galápagos Marine Reserve, a 40 nautical miles wide buffer around the baseline of the islands, is created; The Galápagos National Institute (INGALA) is created to assume the planning and management of the islands [129]. | |
Conservation-Development | 1999 | First management plan for the Galápagos Marine Reserve was approved [7]. |
2001 | The Galápagos Marine Reserve is included as a World Heritage Site [105]. | |
2002 | Isabela’s south wetlands are declared RAMSAR Site [106]. | |
2003 | First regional (provincial) plan for the Galápagos National Park was introduced [7]. | |
2000s | Because of political instability, lack of institutional capacity and coordination the LOREG (1998) was not fully enforced and plans were not implemented. Consequently, conflicts between the Galápagos National Park Service and the fishing sector continued. Also, Galápagos experienced an unprecedented tourism growth causing population growth and increasing the pressure on natural resources [7,52,64,66]. | |
2007 | Galápagos Islands are placed on the Endangered World Heritage Sites List due to failures to control the introduction of invasive alien species, and to regulate immigration and the increasing tourism activities [105]. | |
2008 | The new Ecuadorian Constitution creates the Galápagos Government Council (GGC) to replace the INGALA as the planning and management authority in the Galápagos Province [113]. | |
2007–2010 | Several measures are implemented to address the requirements of the World Heritage Committee and Galápagos Islands are removed from the Endangered World Heritage Sites List [105]. | |
2014 | The first plan for the joint management of the Galápagos National Park and Galápagos Marine Reserve is introduced [123]. | |
2015 | A new Organic Law for the Special Regime of the Galápagos Province is passed [121]. The LOREG (2015) triggers the elaboration of new regulations and plans for the conservation of the Galápagos Islands. |
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Themes | Interdependent Issues |
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Tourism Galápagos is experiencing an accelerating growth in the number of visitors since the late 1960s [7,103]. The number of tourists arriving to the islands every year went from a couple of thousands in 1969 [7] to over 220,000 in 2015 [103]. | |
Fishing Since the 1980s, fisheries quickly intensified driven by the demand of international markets for lobster and sea cucumber, particularly from Asia [7,29,64]. |
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Conservation/Governance Galápagos presents a historical lack of institutional/organizational/technical capacity when implementing and enforcing policy frameworks and institutional arrangements [7,54].Also, there is great instability in authority positions [105]. | |
Human settlements Institutional arrangements [112,113] limit municipalities and rural parishes resources and capacity, compared with provincial governments and national ministries, but are left to deal with the consequences of population growth. |
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Pazmiño, A.; Serrao-Neumann, S.; Low Choy, D. Towards Comprehensive Policy Integration for the Sustainability of Small Islands: A Landscape-Scale Planning Approach for the Galápagos Islands. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1228. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10041228
Pazmiño A, Serrao-Neumann S, Low Choy D. Towards Comprehensive Policy Integration for the Sustainability of Small Islands: A Landscape-Scale Planning Approach for the Galápagos Islands. Sustainability. 2018; 10(4):1228. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10041228
Chicago/Turabian StylePazmiño, Andrés, Silvia Serrao-Neumann, and Darryl Low Choy. 2018. "Towards Comprehensive Policy Integration for the Sustainability of Small Islands: A Landscape-Scale Planning Approach for the Galápagos Islands" Sustainability 10, no. 4: 1228. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10041228