Zonation and Directional Dynamics of Mangrove Forests Derived from Time-Series Satellite Imagery in Mai Po, Hong Kong
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Area and Data Sets
3. Methods
3.1. Mangrove Forest Classification on Species Level
3.2. Directional Analysis Using Standard Deviational Ellipse
3.3. Validation and Accuracy Assessment
4. Results
4.1. Accuracy Assessment of the Mangrove Species Classification
4.2. Mapping Mangrove Zonation in the Last 25 Years
4.3. Temporal Dynamics on Directional Development at Species Level
5. Discussion
5.1. Discussion on the Driving Factors of Mangrove Changes
5.2. Comments on the Sustainable Development of Mai Po Reserve
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Dataset | Acquisition Date | Resolution | |
---|---|---|---|
Remote sensing data | SPOT1 HRV | 21 December 1991 | 20 m |
26 December 1993 | |||
29 January 1997 | |||
22 November 2000 | |||
SPOT4 HRIVR | 8 November 2002 | 10 m | |
SPOT5 HRG | 11 December 2004 | 10 m | |
21 November 2008 | |||
10 January 2011 | |||
GF-1 | 15 November 2013 | 16 m | |
20 February 2014 | |||
16 December 2015 |
Date of Satellite Data | Sources of Reference Data |
---|---|
21 December 1991 | Duke and Khan 1999; High Resolution satellite data in 1991 from Google Earth |
26 December 1993 | Duke and Khan 1999; High Resolution satellite data in 1991 from Google Earth |
29 January 1997 | Duke and Khan 1999; High Resolution satellite data in 2000 from Google Earth |
22 November 2000 | High Resolution satellite data in 2000 from Google Earth |
8 November 2002 | High Resolution Satellite data in 2002 and 2003 from Google Earth |
11 December 2004 | AFCD data; Wong and Fung 2016; High Resolution satellite data in 2003 and 2004 from Google Earth |
21 December 2008 | AFCD data; Wong and Fung 2016; High Resolution satellite data in 2008 from Google Earth |
10 January 2011 | Wong and Fung 2016; High Resolution satellite data in 2011 |
15 November 2013 | Our field data; Google Earth High Resolution images in 2013 |
20 February 2014 | Our field data; Google Earth High Resolution images in 2014 |
16 December 2015 | Our field data; Google Earth High Resolution images in 2015 |
1991 | 1993 | ||||||||||||
KO1 | AM | KO2 | AI | PA | UA | KO1 | AM | KO2 | AI | PA | UA | ||
KO1 | 165 | 8 | 18 | 27 | 91.16% | 75.69% | KO1 | 174 | 8 | 4 | 3 | 86.14% | 92.06% |
AM | 14 | 98 | 33 | 3 | 64.90% | 66.22% | AM | 6 | 133 | 31 | 2 | 86.92% | 77.33% |
KO2 | 0 | 16 | 57 | 25 | 41.91% | 58.16% | KO2 | 7 | 12 | 129 | 10 | 75% | 81.65% |
AI | 2 | 29 | 28 | 111 | 66.87% | 65.29% | AI | 15 | 0 | 8 | 134 | 89.93% | 85.35% |
OA | 67.98% | KC | 0.57 | OA | 84.32% | KC | 0.79 | ||||||
1997 | 2000 | ||||||||||||
KO1 | AM | KO2 | AI | PA | UA | KO1 | AM | KO2 | AI | PA | UA | ||
KO1 | 185 | 3 | 16 | 0 | 93.91% | 90.69% | KO1 | 171 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 100% | 97.71% |
AM | 12 | 194 | 90 | 0 | 95.10% | 65.54% | AM | 0 | 158 | 3 | 49 | 95.18% | 75.24 |
KO2 | 0 | 7 | 55 | 4 | 32.93% | 83.33% | KO2 | 0 | 2 | 141 | 31 | 87.04% | 81.03% |
AI | 0 | 0 | 6 | 148 | 97.37% | 96.10% | AI | 0 | 6 | 16 | 59 | 41.84% | 72.84% |
OA | 80.83% | KC | 0.74 | OA | 82.66% | KC | 0.77 | ||||||
2002 | 2004 | ||||||||||||
KO1 | AM | KO2 | AI | PA | UA | KO1 | AM | KO2 | AI | PA | UA | ||
KO1 | 162 | 2 | 8 | 8 | 89.50% | 90% | KO1 | 169 | 11 | 5 | 13 | 89.42% | 83.35% |
AM | 5 | 174 | 4 | 15 | 93.05% | 87.88% | AM | 6 | 171 | 4 | 42 | 88.14% | 76.68% |
KO2 | 9 | 1 | 125 | 5 | 87.41% | 89.29% | KO2 | 9 | 2 | 154 | 0 | 92.22% | 93.33% |
AI | 5 | 10 | 6 | 129 | 82..17% | 86% | AI | 5 | 10 | 4 | 103 | 65.19% | 84.42% |
OA | 88.32% | KC | 0.84 | OA | 84.32% | KC | 0.79 | ||||||
2008 | 2011 | ||||||||||||
KO1 | AM | KO2 | AI | PA | UA | KO1 | AM | KO2 | AI | PA | UA | ||
KO1 | 189 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 96.92% | 96.43% | KO1 | 190 | 4 | 2 | 9 | 93.14% | 92.68% |
AM | 4 | 160 | 1 | 28 | 86.96% | 82.90% | AM | 11 | 147 | 3 | 21 | 86.98% | 80.77% |
KO2 | 0 | 5 | 143 | 23 | 83.63% | 83.63% | KO2 | 1 | 4 | 155 | 23 | 94.51% | 84.70% |
AI | 2 | 16 | 25 | 140 | 72.54% | 76.50% | AI | 2 | 14 | 4 | 82 | 60.74% | 80.39% |
OA | 85.06% | KC | 0.80 | OA | 85.42% | KC | 0.80 | ||||||
2013 | 2014 | ||||||||||||
KO1 | AM | KO2 | AI | PA | UA | KO1 | AM | KO2 | AI | PA | UA | ||
KO1 | 116 | 6 | 3 | 1 | 89.92% | 92.06% | KO1 | 172 | 12 | 0 | 2 | 86% | 92.47% |
AM | 13 | 147 | 25 | 6 | 91.30% | 76.96% | AM | 28 | 179 | 4 | 2 | 90.86% | 84.04% |
KO2 | 0 | 0 | 121 | 27 | 74.69% | 81.76% | KO2 | 0 | 0 | 131 | 3 | 95.62% | 97.76% |
AI | 0 | 8 | 13 | 138 | 80.23% | 86.79% | AI | 0 | 6 | 2 | 147 | 95.45% | 94.84% |
OA | 83.65% | KC | 0.78 | OA | 91.42% | KC | 0.88 | ||||||
2015 | |||||||||||||
KO1 | AM | KO2 | AI | PA | UA | ||||||||
KO1 | 134 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 91.78% | 96.40% | |||||||
AM | 10 | 178 | 0 | 0 | 96.21% | 67.42% | |||||||
KO2 | 2 | 2 | 74 | 2 | 40.13% | 70% | |||||||
AI | 0 | 0 | 63 | 23 | 82.14% | 85.19% | |||||||
OA | 78.03% | KC | 0.70 |
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Liu, M.; Zhang, H.; Lin, G.; Lin, H.; Tang, D. Zonation and Directional Dynamics of Mangrove Forests Derived from Time-Series Satellite Imagery in Mai Po, Hong Kong. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1913. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10061913
Liu M, Zhang H, Lin G, Lin H, Tang D. Zonation and Directional Dynamics of Mangrove Forests Derived from Time-Series Satellite Imagery in Mai Po, Hong Kong. Sustainability. 2018; 10(6):1913. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10061913
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, Mingfeng, Hongsheng Zhang, Guanghui Lin, Hui Lin, and Danling Tang. 2018. "Zonation and Directional Dynamics of Mangrove Forests Derived from Time-Series Satellite Imagery in Mai Po, Hong Kong" Sustainability 10, no. 6: 1913. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10061913