A Systematic Initial Study of Civic Scientific Literacy in China: Cross-National Comparable Results from Scientific Cognition to Sustainable Literacy
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Background
1.2. Review of Related Literature
- The concept dimension: a vocabulary of basic scientific constructs sufficient to read and debate various views;
- The inquiry dimension: an understanding of the process or nature of scientific inquiry (or ‘true research’);
- The social-impact dimension: an understanding of the impact of science and technology on human individuals or society.
1.3. Research Purposes
2. Civic Scientific Literacy (CSL) Studies in China
2.1. The History of CSL Studies in China
2.1.1. Initial Government Surveys and Academic Studies
2.1.2. Research Framework for the Present Studies
2.1.3. Questionnaires
- The personal information and attributes of the surveyed subject (‘background’ hereinafter);
- The subject’s degree of interest in scientific matters and the usual channels from which scientific information is received (‘interest and channel’);
- The level of science understanding, including the recognition of basic scientific concepts and the understanding of scientific inquiry (‘understanding’);
- The subject’s attitude toward science and technologies (‘attitude’).
2.2. The Observable Drawbacks
2.2.1. Excessively Assertive CSL Judgments
2.2.2. The Incomparable Results Problem
2.2.3. Unidentified Effectiveness of Each Question
2.2.4. Using Repeated Questions, Some of Which Are Perhaps Outdated
2.3. Survey/Analysis Works of This Study
3. Methodology: Analysing the CSL Level in China by Item Response Theory
3.1. Item Response Modelling
3.2. The Estimation of Item Parameters: Results and Analysis
3.3. Comparing the Question Parameters Cross-Nationally
3.4. Assessment of Respondents’ Latent CSL Variable Values and Their Overall Distribution
4. Results: Overview of CSL Level in China and the Group Analyses
4.1. Analysis of the Entire Sample
- Overall, 16.70% of the respondents qualified as possessing CSL in the ‘concept’ dimension (denoted by set A) and 20.55% were qualified in the ‘inquiry’ dimension (denoted by set B);
- When measured in either dimension (in a strictly exclusive manner), 28.99% were qualified (the union of sets A and B), and these were the people who at least ‘possessed partial CSL’;
- However, when measured in both dimensions together, only 8.26% were qualified (the intersection of sets A and B), and these were the people who truly ‘possessed full CSL’.
4.2. Group Analyses in Terms of ‘Background’ Characteristics
4.3. Group Analyses in Terms of ‘Channel’ Characteristics
5. Comparison: Comparing the Overall Qualified Rate of CSL in China to Those in US-EU Countries
6. Discussion: Implication for Policy and Practice
7. Conclusions and Recommendations
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Appendix B
- (1)
- What is your understanding of the term ’scientific research’?
- (2)
- What is the best approach to learn, for example, whether a new medicine is effective in treating hypertension?
- (3)
- A doctor told a couple that for their children the probability that they will suffer from a genetic disease is 1/4. How do you recognize the doctor’s statement?
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Testing Question (Item ID. Question) | Difficulty (bi) | Discrimination (ai) | Lower Asymptotic (ci) |
---|---|---|---|
1. The temperature in the core of the Earth is very high | −0.238 | 1.548 | 1.15 × 10−6 |
2. The oxygen we breath comes from plants | −0.937 | 1.004 | 6.13 × 10−16 |
3. The gender of the child is determined by father’s gene | −0.106 | 0.650 | 2.27 × 10−9 |
4. Antibiotics kills viruses | 1.370 | 0.939 | 1.41 × 10−6 |
5. Over millions of years, the land we are living drifted gradually, and it will drift continuously | 0.119 | 2.009 | 1.36 × 10−11 |
6. Vaccination can heal one from many diseases | 0.924 | 0.950 | 1.53 × 10−6 |
7. The earliest ancestors of human beings lived in the same era with dinosaurs | 0.356 | 1.402 | 4.29 × 10−10 |
8. Milk containing radioactive substances is safe to drink after boiling | 0.021 | 1.592 | 8.15 × 10−11 |
9. Light travels faster than sound | −0.552 | 2.054 | 1.60 × 10−15 |
10. The movement of the Earth’s plates leads to earthquakes | −0.383 | 2.097 | 8.04 × 10−21 |
11. The viruses of Hepatitis B will not spread through the air | −0.369 | 0.881 | 3.88 × 10−12 |
12. The color of a flower is determined by genes | 0.272 | 1.239 | 3.79 × 10−11 |
13. Sounds only propagate in the air | 0.609 | 1.154 | 1.35 × 10−8 |
14. To our best knowledge, humans are evolved from earlier animal species | −0.528 | 1.321 | 6.69 × 10−14 |
15. All radiations are caused by human or produced artificially | 0.247 | 1.839 | 1.22 × 10−11 |
16. A laser is generated by gathering many sound waves | 1.253 | 1.354 | 6.71 × 10−7 |
17. An electron is smaller than an atom | 1.096 | 1.258 | 7.64 × 10−10 |
18. One day is required for Earth to revolve round the Sun | 0.613 | 1.130 | 9.59 × 10−5 |
19. Select the best description of the term ‘particle’ | 2.251 | 0.967 | 7.84 × 10−8 |
20. Select the best description of the term ‘DNA’ | 2.536 | 0.361 | 2.66 × 10−7 |
21. Select the best description of the term ‘Internet’ | 1.195 | 1.203 | 2.50 × 10−8 |
22. Select the best definition of ‘nano’ | 1.117 | 1.435 | 1.65 × 10−7 |
Average | 0.494 | 1.290 |
The Identical Questions | ID | Difficulty (in China) | Discrimination (in China) | Difficulty (in US-EU) | Discrimination (in US-EU) * |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Select the best description of the term ‘DNA’ | Q20 | 2.536 | 0.361 | 1.191 | 1.710 |
Light travels faster than sound | Q9 | −0.552 | 2.054 | −0.872 | 1.318 |
A laser is generated by gathering many sound waves | Q16 | 1.253 | 1.354 | 0.435 | 1.518 |
All forms of radiation are caused by humans or are produced artificially | Q15 | 0.247 | 1.839 | −0.185 | 1.775 |
An electron is smaller than an atom | Q17 | 1.096 | 1.258 | 0.312 | 0.910 |
The earliest ancestors of human beings lived in the same era as dinosaurs | Q7 | 0.356 | 1.402 | −0.074 | 0.911 |
Over millions of years, the land we are living on has drifted gradually, and it will continue to drift | Q5 | 0.119 | 2.009 | −1.636 | 1.275 |
Milk containing radioactive substances is safe to drink after boiling | Q8 | 0.021 | 1.592 | −0.499 | 1.450 |
The temperature in the core of the Earth is very high | Q1 | −0.238 | 1.548 | −1.887 | 1.467 |
Antibiotics kill viruses | Q4 | 1.370 | 0.939 | 1.158 | 0.908 |
Characteristic | Group | -of Respondents in Sample | Possessing Partial CSL at Least in the Concept Dimension | Possessing Partial CSL at Least in the Inquiry Dimension | Possessing Full CSL | Is This Characteristic Effective (Does It Affect the Qualified Rate)? (p-Value) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | Male | 6152 | 17.95% | 22.14% | 9.22% | Yes (0.00009) |
Female | 5666 | 15.36% | 18.32% | 7.22% | ||
Age | 18–27 | 1197 | 33.75% | 33.42% | 17.46% | Yes (<0.00001) |
28–39 | 2233 | 24.05% | 27.86% | 12.23% | ||
40–54 | 4844 | 14.35% | 20.07% | 7.18% | ||
55–69 | 3544 | 9.54% | 12.27% | 4.12% | ||
Education | Primary school | 3199 | 3.44% | 9.97% | 1.06% | Yes (<0.00001) |
Junior high | 4149 | 10.77% | 17.52% | 5.09% | ||
Senior high school or post-secondary vocational | 3624 | 26.32% | 30.38% | 13.08% | ||
University or above | 846 | 54.73% | 43.97% | 30.38% | ||
Occupation* | J1 | 340 | 37.65% | 37.65% | 20.29% | Yes (<0.00001) |
J2 | 640 | 33.44% | 33.91% | 17.97% | ||
J3 | 1140 | 34.12% | 34.65% | 18.07% | ||
J4 | 1689 | 4.68% | 11.25% | 2.25% | ||
J5 | 1783 | 20.58% | 23.33% | 9.76% | ||
J6 | 947 | 15.84% | 21.75% | 7.71% | ||
J7 | 275 | 34.91% | 32.73% | 19.27% | ||
J8 | 247 | 14.98% | 22.27% | 6.48% | ||
J9 | 1308 | 15.98% | 19.42% | 6.88% | ||
J10 | 2716 | 6.37% | 10.71% | 2.69% | ||
J11 | 727 | 18.02% | 25.59% | 9.49% | ||
Morphology | Country (rural) | 7346 | 11.54% | 17.23% | 5.76% | Yes (<0.00001) |
Urban (including suburbs) | 4472 | 25.18% | 26.01% | 12.37% | ||
Interest | Totally not interested | 158 | 1.27% | 3.16% | 0.00% | Yes (<0.00001) |
Not that interested | 442 | 2.71% | 6.33% | 0.68% | ||
Normal | 1863 | 4.51% | 8.32% | 1.77% | ||
Interested | 6741 | 16.51% | 21.21% | 7.77% | ||
Very interested | 2641 | 29.19% | 31.03% | 15.91% | ||
Scientific knowledge channel | Newspapers | 1445 | 16.89% | 22.28% | 7.82% | Yes (<0.00001) |
Book | 71 | 19.72% | 22.54% | 9.86% | ||
Periodicals | 82 | 20.73% | 19.51% | 8.54% | ||
TV | 6821 | 9.41% | 14.43% | 4.30% | ||
Radio | 153 | 13.73% | 15.69% | 7.19% | ||
Internet (PC) | 2098 | 39.42% | 38.03% | 21.35% | ||
Smartphone | 517 | 21.08% | 30.56% | 10.83% | ||
Social network | 131 | 12.98% | 10.68% | 3.82% | ||
Level of science activity involvement | No involvement at all | 7215 | 10.05% | 15.79% | 4.71% | Yes (<0.00001) |
Low involvement | 1769 | 22.10% | 23.18% | 10.29% | ||
Medium-low involvement | 1220 | 27.30% | 26.39% | 12.54% | ||
Medium involvement | 720 | 30.28% | 31.39% | 15.42% | ||
Medium-high involvement | 409 | 34.47% | 33.50% | 18.83% | ||
High involvement | 485 | 34.23% | 40.21% | 23.20% | ||
Frequency of scientific facility access | Very low | 3792 | 6.30% | 12.66% | 2.90% | Yes (<0.00001) |
Med-low | 3322 | 14.15% | 17.97% | 6.92% | ||
Medium | 3006 | 22.39% | 25.88% | 10.88% | ||
Med-high | 1325 | 32.45% | 32.83% | 16.53% | ||
Very High | 373 | 43.43% | 37.27% | 24.13% |
Country | CSL-Qualified Ratio, 1995 (%) | CSL-Qualified Ratio, 2005 (%) | 10-Years Increase |
---|---|---|---|
E.U.-Denmark | 8 | 22 | 14 |
E.U.-England | 10 | 14 | 4 |
E.U.-France | 4 | 17 | 13 |
E.U.-Germany | 4 | 18 | 14 |
E.U.-Greece | 1 | 7 | 6 |
E.U.-Ireland | 3 | 9 | 6 |
E.U.-Italy | 5 | 12 | 7 |
E.U.-Netherlands | 8 | 24 | 16 |
E.U.-Portugal | 1 | 6 | 5 |
E.U.-Spain | 3 | 9 | 6 |
U.S.A. | 12 | 28 | 16 |
This survey-China | 8.26 (2013) | ? (2023) |
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Wu, S.; Zhang, Y.; Zhuang, Z.-Y. A Systematic Initial Study of Civic Scientific Literacy in China: Cross-National Comparable Results from Scientific Cognition to Sustainable Literacy. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3129. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093129
Wu S, Zhang Y, Zhuang Z-Y. A Systematic Initial Study of Civic Scientific Literacy in China: Cross-National Comparable Results from Scientific Cognition to Sustainable Literacy. Sustainability. 2018; 10(9):3129. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093129
Chicago/Turabian StyleWu, Sheng, Yi Zhang, and Zheng-Yun Zhuang. 2018. "A Systematic Initial Study of Civic Scientific Literacy in China: Cross-National Comparable Results from Scientific Cognition to Sustainable Literacy" Sustainability 10, no. 9: 3129. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093129