Application of the Soil Security Concept to Two Contrasting Soil Landscape Systems—Implications for Soil Capability and Sustainable Land Management
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Soil Capability and Soil Condition
2.1. Basic Definitions
- Fertility role: soil nutrient cycles ensure fertility renewal and the delivery of nutrients to plants, therefore contributing to plant growth.
- Filter and reservoir role: soils fix and store solutes passing through and therefore purify water. They also store water for plants to use and take part in flood mitigation.
- Structural role: soils provide physical support to plants, animals and human infrastructures.
- Climate regulation role: soils take part in climate regulation through carbon sequestration and greenhouse gases (N2O and CH4) emissions regulation.
- Biodiversity conservation role: soils are a reservoir of biodiversity. They provide habitat for thousands of species regulating, for instance, pest control or the disposal of wastes.
- Resource role: soils can be a source of materials like peat and clay.
2.2. Links between Soil Capability, Land Management and Environmental Pressures
“Constancy of agricultural outputs over long periods of time or across various spatial environments”.[36] (p. 5)
“Ability to absorb change and to anticipate future perturbations through adaptive capacity”.[36] (p. 5)
2.3. Facets in Assessing Soil Capability
3. Examples of Applying the Facets of Soil Capability
3.1. Steps in Applying the Soil Security Concept to Two Contrasting Soil Landscapes
- (i)
- (ii)
- (i)
- The physical features including climate, landform and soil type were briefly described for each of these sets of soil mapping units.
- (ii)
- The contribution of the soils in the tract of land to the global challenges outlined in Table 1 was established.
- (iii)
- The stability of the soil condition to land degradation processes was established.
- (iv)
- The capacity of the soil condition to recover once it has been degraded was assessed.
3.2. The Cowra Trough Red Soils in Central West New South Wales
3.2.1. Description
3.2.2. The facets of the capability of the soils within the Cowra Trough Red Chromosols
Stability to Water Erosion
Stability to Soil Acidification
Stability to Soil Salinity
3.3. Snowy Mountains Alpine Soils
3.3.1. Description
3.3.2. The Facets of the Capability of the Soils within the Kosciuszko National Park in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales.
“The high country of the snow belt is our most valuable and productive water resource, an area unique for its high precipitation including heavy winter snowfalls, high water retention capacity and very-high water yields”.[100] (p. 220)
Stability to Water Erosion
4. Conclusions
- It identifies the importance of the capacity of the soil to meet global challenges.
- It identifies the role of land management in meeting global challenges.
- It links the land and soil degradation processes to the soil security concept.
- It provides a link between sustainable land management and soil security.
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Food security | Situation when all people at all times have access to sufficient safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life [2] |
Water security | The capacity of a population to safeguard access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being and socio-economic development [2]. |
Energy security | The continuous availability of energy in various forms in sufficient quantities at reasonable prices. |
Climate change abatement and mitigation | Soil acts as a pool of carbon and changes in the soil carbon, especially the soil organic carbon can affect greenhouse gas emissions and sequestration. It is also a pool of active nitrogen (nitrates, ammonia, nitrous oxide) and soil management can affect the emission of greenhouse gases associated with active nitrogen [25]. |
Biodiversity | Soil has a large biodiversity pool itself and soil is also a critical component in the broader natural ecosystems, such as plant communities. |
Human health | Improve life expectancy, quality of life and human well-being—nutrition, prevent exposure to toxic compounds, disease prevention, cultural activities. |
Soil capability | Ability of a soil to function “What can a soil do?” Requires a reference state that defines the optimum ability of the soil to function (genoform). It also depends on how the soil condition changes with the pressures imposed on the soil by land management. |
Soil condition | Current state of the soil and the ability of the soil to function in that state. The soil condition, and hence its ability to function, will change with pressures imposed by land management (phenoform). |
Soil natural capital | Monetary value of the soil asset, assessed by the capacity of the soil to provide goods and services that satisfy human needs, directly or indirectly. |
Connectivity | Knowledge and capacity networks about implementing land management practices and soil security—development pathways, technology transfer, extension networks, public awareness. |
Codification | Government policy and regulation that influences land management options and soil security—land tenure, subsidies, tariffs/import duties and regulation, programs such as the Global Soil Partnership, national parks, etc. |
Soil Landscape | Major Soils * | Geology/Parent Materials | Landform/Slope | Land Use | Topsoil | Subsoil | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Curumbenya | Red Chromosols | Canowindra Porphyry | Rolling low hills Mean of 9% slope 200–700 m long. | Cropping and grazing | FSL to SCL pHwater 6.5–7.0 15 cm deep | CL to LC pHwater 6.0–6.5 | [40,41,44] |
Arthurville | Red Chromosols | Palaeozoic sediments of the Cowra Trough | Undulating rises and low hills 2–6% slopes, 1500–3000 m long | Cropping and grazing | FSL pHwater 7.0 30 cm deep | MC pHwater 8.0 | [41,44] |
Canowindra | Red Chromosols | Palaeozoic sediments of the Cowra Trough | Undulating rises and low hills 2–8% slopes, 360–570 m long | Cropping and grazing | SL—FSL pHwater 6.0–8.0 20 cm deep | SCL—LMC pHwater 6.5–7.5 | [40,44] |
Manildra | Red Chromosols | Palaeozoic sediments of the Cowra Trough | Undulating low hills 6–10% slopes, 300–600 m long | Cropping and grazing | SL—LFS pHwater 6.0–7.5 45 cm deep | CL—MC pHwater 6.5–8.0 | [40,41,44] |
Cowra | Red Chromosols | Cowra Granite (granodiorite) | Undulating to rolling low hills 8–20% 340–600 m long | Cropping and grazing | SL pHwater 6.0 30 cm deep | SCL—MC pHwater 6.5–8.0 | [40,44] |
Global Challenges | ||||||
Food Security | Water Security | Energy Security | Human Health/Welfare | Climate Change Abatement | Biodiversity | |
Cowra Trough Red Soils | High Cropping often in rotation with pastures [40,41] Yield-average [52,53,54] Wheat 3.9 t/ha Canola 1.83 t/ha Value of production (2012) Crops $83 million/year Beef $59 million/year Sheep meat $31 million/year Wool $45 million/year [55,57,58,59,60] | Low Tributary to Lachlan River | Minimal | Low | Low to moderate Potential to sequester organic carbon: 0.37 to 1.10 t/ha/year with changes in agricultural practices. [45,46,47,48,49,61] | Low |
Snowy Mountains Alpine Soils | Minimal Note the value of agricultural production from irrigation water delivered from Snowy is estimated at $ 3 billion/year. [66,67,68,69,70] | Very high Capacity to deliver 2300 GL of water annually to plains of the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers [67,68,70,71] Value of agricultural production (2018). $3 billion/year [66,67,68,69,70] | High Generating capacity from hydroelectric power is 4500 MWh electricity per year (2018) [67,68,71] | High 1.25 million visitors to Kosciusko National Park in 2015. Value estimated at $481 million. [72] | Low to moderate Peat bogs and Sphagnum bogs store organic carbon (≈ 200 tC/ha) [42,73,74] | Moderate to high Many unique species of plants and fauna. [42,43] |
Response to Land Degradation Processes | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Water Erosion | Wind Erosion | Soil Acidification | Soil Organic Carbon Decline | Salinization | Nutrient Decline | |
Facet IIA Land degradation pressure | Moderate to high risk USLE predicts long term average soil loss under conventional tillage ≈ 9.2 t/ha/year ≈ 0.5 mm/year [64] Specific events resulted in soil loss of 342 t/ha and 78 t/ha [64,65] | Low to minimal risk. | Moderate to high risk Predicted acidification pressure based on crop/legume pasture rotation ≈ 250 to 300 kg/ha/year. [75,76] | Moderate risk Loss of soil organic carbon (SOC) from native vegetation to cropping/pasture rotation ≈40% to 50% [47,48,61] | Low to moderate risk Conversion of native vegetation to cropping/pasture can change hydrology of catchments resulting in rising water tables and activating salt stores. [77,78] | High-risk Natural levels of nutrients, especially N and P low and rapidly diminished under agriculture. Agricultural products can remove nutrients from landscape. |
Facet IIB Robustness of the soil condition to resist land degradation pressure | Moderate Deep surface soil (20 to 30 cm) and deep soil profile (>100 cm). [40,41] | Moderate Deep surface soil and deep soil profile | Moderate to low buffering capacity in surface soil. Natural surface pHCaCl about 5.5 to 6.5. Textures loam to sandy loam. | Moderate Soil organic carbon can decline rapidly under exploitive land management practices. Textures loam to sandy loam. Conservation agriculture practices required to maintain SOC levels. [45,46,47,48,49,61] | Low to moderate salt stores and changes in hydrology do not result in large amounts of mobilisation of salt in the landscape. Minor, localised areas of salinity in some depressions. Does not add high salt loads to streams. [77,78] | Moderate Standard additions of nutrients under agricultural production using legume rotations and additions of industrial fertiliser to restore nutrient levels. Some use of organic amendments as fertiliser. |
Facet III Capacity to recover after degradation | New soil formation is slow [79,80]. Surface soil erosion can expose subsoils that can regenerate slowly to give surface soil. Plant growth can rehabilitate soils. | See water erosion | Natural recovery from acidification very slow but can be enhanced by additions of lime. [75,76] | Moderate rate of recovery by plant growth. Relatively high net primary productivity (NPP) ≈3 to 6 tC/ha/year [81] | Altering catchment hydrology to reverse saline outbreaks slow [77,78] | Nutrient decline can be rapidly recovered by fertilising programs and introduction of legumes into rotations. |
Landscape | Major Soils * | Geology/Parent Materials | Type Area | Dominant Land Use | Topsoil | Subsoil | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tablelands 600 to 1000 m | Grey and Brown Chromosols. Small areas of Organosols (mires, peats and bogs) on lower slopes and flow lines. Paralithic Leptic Rudosols (lithosols) on steep slopes and crests. | Granites and granodiorites Palaeozoic sediments | Jindabyne Adaminaby | Grazing, minor cropping | SL to SCL Dark greyish brown to yellowish brown pH 6.0 to 6.5 15 to 20 cm deep | SC to LC Greyish brown to yellowish brown pH 6.0—6.5 50 to 90 cm deep over saprolite | [42,43,86] |
Montane 1000 to 1500 m | Yellow Kandosols and Kurosols Organosols (mires, peats and bogs) on lower slopes and flow lines. Paralithic Leptic Rudosols (lithosols) on steep slopes and crests. | Granites and granodiorites Palaeozoic sediments | Yarrangobilly | Grazing | SCL to CL Greyish yellow brown to brown, some darker colours when higher organic matter pH 5.0 to 5.5 10 to 20 cm deep | CL to SC to LMC Yellowish brown to Greyish brown, some reddish brown. pH 5.0 to 5.5 40 to 100 cm deep | [42,43,86] |
Subalpine 1500 to 1800 m | Chernic Tenosols (alpine humus soils and transitional alpine humus soils). Organosols (mires, peats and bogs) on lower slopes and flow lines. Areas where free water accumulates Paralithic Leptic Rudosols (lithosols) on steep slopes and crests. | Granites and granodiorites Palaeozoic sediments | Mount Kosciusko, Perisher Valley, Kiandra | National Park | Peaty loam Black pH 5.0 to 5.5 20 to 60 cm deep | Loam Dark greyish brown pH 5.5—6.0 70 to 90 cm deep over saprolite. Shallower on steep slopes | [42,43,86] |
Alpine >1800 m | Chernic Tenosols (alpine humus soils and transitional alpine humus soils). Organosols (mires, peats and bogs) on lower slopes and flow lines. Areas where free water accumulates | Granites and granodiorites Palaeozoic sediments | Mount Kosciusko, Perisher Valley, Kiandra Yarrangobilly | National Park Some grazing | Fibric peat 10 to 70 cm Hemic and sapric peat 70 to occasionally to 300 cm pH 4.0 to 5.5 | Sandy or clayey peats at 70 to 150 cm common. pH 5.0 to 6.5 | [42,43,86] |
Response Land Degradation Processes | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Water Erosion | Wind Erosion | Soil Acidification | Soil Organic Carbon Decline | Salinization | Nutrient Decline | |
Facet IIA Land degradation pressure | Very high risk High rainfall and high rainfall erosivity 1500 to 2000 rainfall erosivity units [80,89,90,91]. USLE predicts >20 t/ha from bare soil/low ground cover. [81] Measured erosion ≈4 to 23 t/ha/year [92,93] | High risk. Frequent high velocity winds Frost heave produces loose aggregates susceptible to wind erosion [42,43,94] | Low to minimal risk | Very high risk Compounded by: Water and wind erosion riskHigh SOC levels in Organosols (alpine humus soils) Potential degradation of peat and sphagnum bogs (200 t/ha/100 cm, but up to 2800 tC/ha to 400 cm) [73,84,88,95] | Very low risk | Very high risk Nutrients associated with vegetation and loss of vegetation mass results in loss of nutrients. Erosion removes nutrients. [96,97,98] |
Facet IIB Robustness of the soil condition to resist land degradation pressure | Very low Shallow soils Low capacity to replace vegetative growth. [43,44] Low NPP: ≈0.9 to 1.4 tC/ha/year [81] | Very low Shallow soils Low capacity to replace vegetative growth Low NPP ≈0.9 to 1.4 tC/ha/year [81] | Not applicable | Low Low capacity for vegetative growth. Disturbance results in rapid loss of SOM: erosion | Not applicable | Low Nutrients associated with vegetation Nutrient lost with erosion and destruction of vegetative cover |
Facet III Capacity to recover after degradation | New soil formation is very slow (<1 t/ha/year). Soils shallow over bedrock. Slow plant growth limits rehabilitation capacity. Organic soils in swamps and depressions can regenerate slowly. Low NPP | New soil formation is very slow. Soils shallow over bedrock. Organic soils in swamps and depressions can regenerate slowly. Low NPP | Not applicable | Slow rate of recovery because of low NPP. Mires, bogs and peats slow process of recovery | Not applicable | Nutrients associated with vegetation and recovery of nutrients is very slow. Low productivity limits available funds under agriculture. Low capacity to apply standard agricultural practices to add nutrients. [96,97,98] |
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Murphy, B.; Fogarty, P. Application of the Soil Security Concept to Two Contrasting Soil Landscape Systems—Implications for Soil Capability and Sustainable Land Management. Sustainability 2019, 11, 5706. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11205706
Murphy B, Fogarty P. Application of the Soil Security Concept to Two Contrasting Soil Landscape Systems—Implications for Soil Capability and Sustainable Land Management. Sustainability. 2019; 11(20):5706. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11205706
Chicago/Turabian StyleMurphy, Brian, and Peter Fogarty. 2019. "Application of the Soil Security Concept to Two Contrasting Soil Landscape Systems—Implications for Soil Capability and Sustainable Land Management" Sustainability 11, no. 20: 5706. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11205706