Diversity, Disparity and Territorial Resilience in the Context of the Economic Crisis: An Analysis of Rural Areas in Southern Spain
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Territorial Resilience
2.1. From Regional Resilience to Territorial Resilience
2.2. Factors Associated with Territorial Resilience
- Economic capital includes factors such as employment and the labour market [76], level of income [10], innovation and entrepreneurship [45,77,78,79], economic structure [80], specialisation [16,81] and diversification [45,82], economic dynamism [10], the importance of the agricultural and agri-food sector [48,83], the financial, industrial and construction sectors [84], and tourism and the service sector [10,37,48].
- Social capital includes factors associated with public-private partnerships and their levels of interaction [85], institutional agreements, governance, investment in public services, citizen participation, political leadership [76,86,87,88], and the extent of regional association and cooperative networks [66,89].
3. Methodology
3.1. Research Scope, Unit of Analysis and Time Scale
3.2. Research Methodology and Stages
3.2.1. Selection of Territorial Indicators Associated with Territorial Resilience
3.2.2. Determining the Typology of Rural Territories
3.2.3. Identifying Resilient Rural Territories in Each Type of Territory
3.2.4. Identifying the Factors Associated with Territorial Resilience for Each Type of Territory
3.2.5. Analysis of Results and Implications for the Design of Public Policies
4. Results and Discussion
- Economic capital: Factor 1 represents employment and economic diversification, Factor 2 represents income and economic dynamism, and Factor 3 represents innovation and entrepreneurship.
- Social capital: Factor 4 represents the provision of public services, citizen participation and cooperative networks, and Factor 5 represents management.
- Human capital: Factor 6 represents demographics and education, Factor 7 represents access to resources and basic services, and Factor 8 represents connectivity and access to the Internet.
- Natural capital: Factor 9 represents biodiversity, forest areas and environmental quality, and Factor 10 represents invulnerability, remoteness and marginality.
5. Conclusions
- It presents an integrated view of territorial resilience and its explanatory factors, taking into account economic, social, human, and natural dimensions. No attempt has been made to perform an exhaustive analysis for each of these dimensions, given that other more specific methodology exists for this purpose. However, they have been dealt with in the integrated and holistic way required of territorial analyses.
- It is based on a territorial approach, insofar as the methodology is adapted specifically to each territory, which it takes as a unit of analysis, and regards rural counties as basic management units on which rural policies have an impact.
- It is based on a careful selection of indicators that characterise territorial resilience and its explanatory factors, performed on the basis of a conceptual reference framework and criteria of reliability (official sources of data) and applicability (operative costs calculation is based on data sources). In turn, the availability of the statistical data used in the methodology guarantees automatic follow-up on the evolution of the indicators.
- The analysis of territorial resilience through the proposed methodology can be considered a potentially useful tool to provide information to political decision-makers in charge of the design and implementation of public policies.
- Although the results obtained in this study cannot be generalised beyond the scope of Andalusia, the proposed methodology can be extrapolated for the analysis of other territories.
- It should be highlighted that the methodological tools used to measure territorial cohesion (DEA) only provide relative, not absolute, results, given that territories are classified and hierarchized by comparing them to each other.
- Diverse rural realities require flexible policies that enable the correct use of the principle of subsidiarity.
- This flexibility implies the need for objectives and measures adapted to different realities and prioritised in a variety of ways. This will enable rural territories to progress by acting on the issues that affect them directly and focusing on the factors that might have an impact on their development.
- Although public policies with an impact on these territories recognise the diversity of rural areas, this recognition has not been sufficiently transferred to the planning of objectives and the design of measures.
- Public policies should recognise the uniqueness of rural territories and establish the corresponding diagnosis to encourage the most appropriate policies and measures to promote development.
- The development of rural territories depends on factors that are linked to the scope of diverse public policies (rural, agricultural, territorial). This implies the need for comprehensive and complementarity policies, as well as coordination of funding.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Indicators | Territorial Capital | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Economic | Social | Human | Natural | |||||||
Factors | ||||||||||
F1 | F2 | F3 | F4 | F5 | F6 | F7 | F8 | F9 | F10 | |
Loaded Factors | ||||||||||
EMPL | 0.750 | |||||||||
DIVER | 0.714 | |||||||||
AGRI | 0.779 | |||||||||
INDUS | 0.805 | |||||||||
CONST | 0.835 | |||||||||
INCOME | 0.538 | |||||||||
EAI | 0.901 | |||||||||
SERVI | 0.794 | |||||||||
INVEST | 0.976 | |||||||||
EXPEN | 0.839 | |||||||||
PART | 0.679 | |||||||||
COOP | 0.647 | |||||||||
SURPLUS | −0.843 | |||||||||
PRIV | 0.815 | |||||||||
ASSOC | 0.588 | |||||||||
POP | 0.891 | |||||||||
DENS | 0.846 | |||||||||
YOUTH | 0.733 | |||||||||
UNI | 0.723 | |||||||||
AGE | 0.505 | |||||||||
RES | 0.937 | |||||||||
FBP | 0.408 | |||||||||
ADSL | 0.966 | |||||||||
FOREST | 0.859 | |||||||||
NATU | 0.744 | |||||||||
CC | 0.612 | |||||||||
DIST | 0.514 | |||||||||
ALT | 0.815 | |||||||||
WATER | −0.822 | |||||||||
INVUL | −0.555 | |||||||||
% variance | 31,409 | 23.153 | 20.381 | 40.036 | 18.304 | 60.977 | 16.129 | 8.813 | 33.844 | 23.213 |
% accumulated variance | 31.409 | 54.562 | 74.943 | 40.036 | 58.34 | 60.977 | 77.107 | 85.920 | 33.844 | 57.057 |
Statistics | KMO: 0.508 | KMO: 0.614 | KMO: 0.817 | KMO: 0.607 | ||||||
Bartlett: 16.165 | Bartlett: 72.375 | Bartlett: 281.382 | Bartlett: 78.838 | |||||||
Sig. 0.095 | Sig. 0.000 | Sig. 0.000 | Sig. 0.000 |
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Capital | Variable | Indicator | Notation | Definition |
---|---|---|---|---|
Economic | Employment | Employment rate | EMPL | Employed-to-active population ratio (100-unemployment rate) (%) |
Income | Income per capita | INCOME | Level of income weighted by the total county population (€/pers) | |
Innovation and investment | Business investment | INVEST | Investment in the creation of new businesses (€/pers) | |
Economic structure | Economic diversification | DIVER | Based on the inverse of the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI). Data corresponds to the number of new business and professional activities weighted by the population corresponding to the primary sectors, construction, industry and services (dimensionless) | |
Economic dynamism | Economic activity index | EAI | Total number of new business and professional activities weighted by population (dimensionless) | |
Agricultural sector | Agricultural index | AGRI | Number of new business and professional activities corresponding to agriculture, livestock farming, and fishing weighted by population (dimensionless) | |
Industrial sector | Industrial index | INDUS | Number of new business and professional activities corresponding to industrial activities weighted by population (dimensionless) | |
Construction industry | Construction index | CONST | Number of new business and professional activities corresponding to construction weighted by population (dimensionless) | |
Service sector | Service index | SERVI | Number of new business and professional activities corresponding to the service sector weighted by population (dimensionless) | |
Social | Investment | Expenditure vs. Income per capita | EXPEN | Percentage of expenditure per capita versus income per capita (%) |
Taxation | Surplus | SURPLUS | Current budget surplus or deficit (€) | |
Participation | Average voter turnout in elections | PART | Average percentage of votes in general, regional, and local elections per total voters (%) | |
Partnership | Private sector participation | PRIV | Percentage of private members and businesses on the board of directors of Rural Development Groups (%) | |
Associations | Association networks | ASSOC | Number of sector and business associations, cooperatives and civic associations in the overall structure of Rural Development Group (%) | |
Cooperatives | Cooperative networks | COOP | Number of cooperatives per thousand total population (dimensionless) | |
Human | Demographic | Population | POP | Total population in county (pers) |
Density | Population density | DENS | Population per square kilometre (pers /km2). | |
Generational replacement | Youth index | YOUTH | Percentage of total population under 20 (%). | |
Ageing | Ageing index | AGE | Percentage of total population over 64 (%). | |
Population attraction | Foreign-born population | FBP | Weight of foreign-born population versus total population (%). | |
Education and training | University education | UNI | Percentage of the population with university education (%) | |
Access to basic services | Level of resources | RES | Number of education and primary healthcare centres per thousand total population (dimensionless) | |
Connectivity | Internet penetration | ADSL | Number of ADSL per thousand inhabitants (dimensionless) | |
Natural | Remoteness | Distance | DIST | Distance from provincial capital (NUTS 3) (Km.) |
Isolation | Altitude | ALT | Altitude above sea-level (m) | |
Climate change | Inverse CO2 emissions | CC | Based on the inverse value of total CO2 emissions (1/CO2 emissions) (1/Mt CO2 equivalent) | |
Biodiversity | Natura 2000 | NATU | Percentage of surface-area designated as Special Area of Conservation (SAC) and Special Protection Area (SPA) versus total surface-area (%) | |
Nature | Forest surface-area | FOREST | Percentage of surface-area covered by natural vegetation and forests versus total surface-area (%) | |
Invulnerability | Surface-area with low risk of erosion | INVUL | Percentage of surface-area with erosion levels classified as low or medium (%) | |
Availability of resources | Water distribution | WATER | Percentage of region covered by reservoirs, marshland, salt flats, aquaculture, and rivers, streams and other wet lands versus total surface-area (%). |
Num. | County | RI | Type |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Almanzora | 95.3 | Type 2 |
2 | Alpujarra-Sierra Nevada Almeriense | 67.72 | Type 1 |
3 | Filabres Alhamilla | 100 | Type 1 |
4 | Levante Almeriense | 100 | Type 3 |
5 | Los Vélez | 100 | Type 2 |
6 | Campiña de Jerez | 72.63 | Type 3 |
7 | Costa Noroeste de Cádiz | 88 | Type 3 |
8 | Litoral de la Janda | 100 | Type 3 |
9 | Los Alcornocales | 100 | Type 3 |
10 | Sierra de Cádiz | 99.31 | Type 4 |
11 | Campiña Sur | 66.49 | Type 4 |
12 | Guadajoz y Campiña Este | 91.15 | Type 1 |
13 | Los Pedroches | 72.77 | Type 2 |
14 | Medio Guadalquivir | 84.97 | Type 3 |
15 | Sierra Morena Cordobesa | 86.21 | Type 1 |
16 | Subbética Cordobesa | 50.7 | Type 4 |
17 | Valle del Alto Guadiato | 57.08 | Type 2 |
18 | Alpujarra-Sierra Nevada de Granada | 75.86 | Type 1 |
19 | Altiplano de Granada | 71.89 | Type 2 |
20 | Arco Noroeste de la Vega de Granada | 100 | Type 1 |
21 | Guadix | 96.2 | Type 1 |
22 | Los Montes de Granada | 100 | Type 1 |
23 | Poniente Granadino | 92.93 | Type 4 |
24 | Valle Lecrín Temple y Costa Interior | 100 | Type 1 |
25 | Vega Sierra-Elvira | 91.47 | Type 3 |
26 | Andévalo Occidental | 100 | Type 2 |
27 | Condado de Huelva | 100 | Type 3 |
28 | Costa Occidental de Huelva | 86.68 | Type 3 |
29 | Cuenca Minera de Riotinto | 50 | Type 2 |
30 | Sierra de Aracena y Picos de Aro | 90 | Type 2 |
31 | Campiña Norte de Jaén | 50.85 | Type 4 |
32 | Condado de Jaén | 66.83 | Type 1 |
33 | La Loma y las Villas | 41.5 | Type 4 |
34 | Sierra de Cazorla | 68.35 | Type 1 |
35 | Sierra de Segura | 32.19 | Type 2 |
36 | Sierra Mágina | 81 | Type 1 |
37 | Sierra Sur de Jaén | 79.92 | Type 4 |
38 | Antequera | 79.26 | Type 4 |
39 | Axarquía | 97.49 | Type 3 |
40 | Guadalteba | 99.46 | Type 1 |
41 | Serranía de Ronda | 100 | Type 2 |
42 | Sierra de las Nieves | 100 | Type 1 |
43 | Territorio Nororiental de Málaga | 98.99 | Type 4 |
44 | Valle del Guadalhorce | 100 | Type 4 |
45 | Aljarafe-Doñana | 100 | Type 3 |
46 | Bajo Guadalquivir | 100 | Type 4 |
47 | Campiña y los Alcores de Sevilla | 100 | Type 4 |
48 | Corredor de la Plata | 95.57 | Type 1 |
49 | Estepa Sierra Sur | 100 | Type 4 |
50 | Gran Vega de Sevilla | 89.1 | Type 3 |
51 | Serranía Suroeste Sevillana | 90.98 | Type 4 |
52 | Sierra Morena Sevillana | 84.01 | Type 1 |
Dimension/Indicator | Resilience Indices | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Spearman Coefficient | ||||
Type 1 | Type 2 | Type 3 | Type 4 | |
Economic Capital | ||||
DIVER | 0.617 (**) | |||
AGRI | 0.674 (**) | 0.491 (*) | ||
SERVI | 0.595 (*) | |||
Social Capital | ||||
EXPEN | 0.544 (*) | |||
PRIV | 0.447 (*) | |||
ASSOC | 0.595 (*) | |||
Human Capital | ||||
YOUTH | 0.493 (*) | 0.593 (*) | ||
AGE | −0.598 (*) | |||
FBP | 0.580 (*) | |||
UNI | 0.463 (*) | |||
ADSL | 0.537 (*) | |||
Natural Capital | ||||
DIST | −0.544 (*) | |||
FOREST | 0.560 (*) |
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Sánchez-Zamora, P.; Gallardo-Cobos, R. Diversity, Disparity and Territorial Resilience in the Context of the Economic Crisis: An Analysis of Rural Areas in Southern Spain. Sustainability 2019, 11, 1743. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11061743
Sánchez-Zamora P, Gallardo-Cobos R. Diversity, Disparity and Territorial Resilience in the Context of the Economic Crisis: An Analysis of Rural Areas in Southern Spain. Sustainability. 2019; 11(6):1743. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11061743
Chicago/Turabian StyleSánchez-Zamora, Pedro, and Rosa Gallardo-Cobos. 2019. "Diversity, Disparity and Territorial Resilience in the Context of the Economic Crisis: An Analysis of Rural Areas in Southern Spain" Sustainability 11, no. 6: 1743. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11061743