Geochemical Classification of Global Mine Water Drainage
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Research Methodology
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Geochemical Distribution of the Global AMD Dataset
3.2. Classification of the Global AMD Dataset Using the Hill (1968) Framework
3.3. Evaluation of Results and Framework Optimisation
4. Conclusions
- The addition of Class 0 to the framework for highly acidic and high concentration baring AMD. The research results found that 11% of the referenced mine water sites exceeded Class I specifications. Class 0 is proposed as an addition to aid policy makers identify these sites as uniquely contaminated mine waters and aid remediators to identify suitable remediation techniques.
- Revisions to Class I to enable the classification of all the geochemical variations of non-neutralised and unoxidised mine water sources. The research results showed that 38.7% of non-neutralised and unoxidised referenced mine waters did not meet the specification of the original Class I of the Hill (1968) framework. The proposed revisions comprised of changes to the lower limits of Fe2+, acidity and SO4 concentrations to enable the classification of all mine water sources.
- The addition of an indicator species for cytotoxic cation AMD contaminants Zn, Ni, Pb, As and Cd. Zinc was selected as the indicator species for these contaminants with a categorisation of low, median and high proposed for classification. The proposed addition of Zn will enable regulators and mine water remediators to greater understand the environmental impacts of the AMD source and the mine water remediation requirements.
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Class | Class Description | Thresholds | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Class I | Acid mine drainage | pH = 2.0–4.5 Acidity = 1–15 g/L | Fe2+ = 500–10,000 mg/L Fe3+ = 0 mg/L | SO4 = 1–20 g/L Al = 0–2000 mg/L |
Class II | Partially oxidised and/or neutralised | pH = 3.5–6.6 Acidity = 0–1 g/L | Fe2+ = 0–500 mg/L Fe3+ = 0–1.000 mg/L | SO4 = 500–10,000 mg/L Al = 0–20 mg/L |
Class III | Neutral and not oxidised | pH = 6.5–8.5 Acidity = 0 mg/L | Fe2+ = 0–500 mg/L Fe3+ = 0 mg/L | SO4 = 500–10,000 mg/L Al = 0–2000 mg/L |
Class IV | Oxidised and neutralised/alkaline | pH = 6.5–8.5 Acidity = 0 mg/L | Fe2+ = 0 mg/L Fe3+ = 0 mg/L | SO4 = 500–10,000 mg/L Al = 0 mg/L |
No | Country | Minerals | Sites | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Australia | Au | Mount Ida Goldfield | [18,53,54,55] |
Sn | Jumna mine | |||
Ag | Montalbion mine | |||
Au, Cu | Mount Morgan mine, Arnold’s Gully | |||
2 | Brazil | Coal | Coal mining area southern Brazil, Pedras stream | [56,57,58,59,60] |
Au | Iron Quadrangle, Velhas river basin | |||
U | Osamu Utsumi uranium mine, Pocos de Caldas | |||
Coal | Coal mine in Figueira municipality, State of Paraná | |||
3 | Canada | Zn, Cu, Pb, Ag | Mattabi Mine | [61,62,63,64,65,66] |
Fe | Lorraine mine site | |||
Zn, Au, Ag | Les Mines Gallen | |||
Au | Doyon mine, Québec | |||
4 | China | Coal | Xingren mine | [65,66,67,68] |
Rare earth metals | Sitai mine | |||
Cu | Tongling mine | |||
Pyrite | Xiang Mountain sulphide mine | |||
5 | Chile | Cu | Active copper mine | [69,70,71,72,73] |
Cu | Chuquicamata porphyry copper mine | |||
Cu, Au | Punta del Cobre belt | |||
Cu | Andean mountain mines—Azufre River | |||
6 | Germany | U | Konigstein mine | [74,75,76,77,78] |
Coal | Lusatian Lignite District | |||
U | Gessenhalde near Ronneburg, Thuringia, | |||
Lignite | Mine pit, Lake Bockwitz, south of Leipzig | |||
7 | Ghana | Ag | Tarkwa gold-mining district | [79,80,81,82] |
Ag | Lower Offin basin | |||
Ag | Lower Pra Basin | |||
Ag | Iduapriem Gold Mine | |||
8 | Japan | Au | Tomitaka | [83,84,85,86] |
Coal | Hokutan Horonai coal mine | |||
As | Honshu | |||
As | Nishinomaki | |||
9 | Mexico | Ag, Zn, Pb | Taxco Mining Area | [87,88,89,90] |
Zn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Au | Estado de Mexico | |||
Cu | Buenavista del Cobre Mine | |||
Ag | Huautla mine | |||
10 | Morocco | Au, Ag, Cu | Tiouit mine | [91,92,93,94] |
Cu, Mo, W | Azegour mine | |||
Pb | Zeïda mine | |||
Pyrrhotite ore | Kettara mine site | |||
11 | New Zealand | Coal | Mangatini stream | [95,96,97,98,99] |
Coal | Stockton coal mine—Mangatini stream catchment | |||
Coal | Stockton Denniston Plateau | |||
Cu, Pb, Zn | Tui Mine | |||
12 | Russia | Coal | Levikha mine | [100,101,102,103] |
Coal | Berikul tailing | |||
Cu, Zn | Ursk tailings, Kemerovo region | |||
Coal | The Kizel Coal Basin | |||
13 | South Africa | Au | Western basin | [104,105,106] |
Au | Witwatersrand basin | |||
Au | Central Basin | |||
Coal | Witbank | |||
14 | Peru | Zn, Pb, Ag, Bi, Cu | Polymetallic Cerro de Pasco deposit | [107,108,109,110,111] |
Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn | Kingsmill Tunnel, Central Andes | |||
Ag, Au, Cu | Rio Santiago Stream, Cordillera Negra | |||
Cu, Zn | Antamina mine | |||
15 | South Korea | Cu | Ilgwang | [112,113,114,115] |
Coal | Donghae mine area | |||
Coal | Dogye coal mine | |||
Au, Ag | Kwangyang | |||
16 | Spain | Ag, Au, Cu, Fe, Pb, Tn | Iberian Pyrite Belt (from 25 mines) | [116,117,118,119] |
Ag, Au, Cu, Fe, Pb, Tn | Odiel River basin | |||
Ag, Au, Cu, Fe, Pb, Tn | Tinto river | |||
Cu, Fe, Zn | Peña de Hierro, Riotinto area | |||
17 | United Kingdom | Cu | Parys Mountain copper mine | [24,51,120,121,122] |
Coal | Yorkshire colliery | |||
Coal | Derbyshire colliery | |||
Sn, Cu | Wheal Jane | |||
18 | United States | Coal | South Carolina | [25,123,124,125] |
Coal | Solomon Creek, Pennsylvania | |||
Cu | Racoon Creek, Ohio | |||
Cu | Friendship Hill |
Distribution | pH | Acidity | Aluminium | Sulphate | Total Iron |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
25th percentile (Q1) | 0–2.6 | 0–215 mg/L | 0–11 mg/L | 0–1217 mg/L | 0–40 mg/L |
50th percentile (Q2) | 2.6–3.1 | 215–712 mg/L | 11–56 mg/L | 1217–2444 mg/L | 40–209 mg/L |
75th percentile (Q3) | 3.1–4.0 | 712–1788 mg/L | 56–343 mg/L | 2444–6081 mg/L | 209–988 mg/L |
Distribution | Zinc |
---|---|
25th percentile (Q1) | 0–5 mg/L |
50th percentile (Q2) | 5–25 mg/L |
75th percentile (Q3) | 25–152 mg/L |
Classification | AMD Geochemistry Distribution | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Acidity vs. pH | Total Fe vs. pH | Aluminium vs. pH | Sulphate vs. pH | |
Class I | 53.3% | 46% | 76.2% | 69.5% |
Class II | 20% | 12% | 11.1% | 11.1% |
Class III | 10% | 4% | 2.7% | 4.2% |
Class IV | - | - | 1.6% | - |
Outliers | 16.7% | 38% | 22.2% | 15.2% |
Class | Class Description | Thresholds | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Class 0 ** | Highly concentrated and acidic mine drainage ** | pH = 0.5–3 ** Acidity = 5–45 g/L ** | Total Fe = 1000–12,000 mg/L ** | SO4 = 10–60 g/L ** Al = 1000–18,000 mg/L ** |
Class I | Acid mine drainage | pH = 2.0–4.5 Acidity = 0–15 g/L ** | Fe2+ = 0–10,000 mg/L ** Fe3+ = 0 mg/L | SO4 = 0–20 g/L ** Al = 0–2000 mg/L |
Class II | Partially oxidised and/or neutralised | pH = 3.5–6.6 Acidity = 0–1 g/L | Fe2+ = 0–500 mg/L Fe3+ = 0–1.000 mg/L | SO4 = 500–10,000 mg/L Al = 0–20 mg/L |
Class III | Neutral and not oxidised | pH = 6.5–8.5 Acidity = 0 mg/L | Fe2+ = 0–500 mg/L Fe3+ = 0 mg/L | SO4 = 500–10,000 mg/L Al = 0–2000 mg/L |
Class IV | Oxidised and neutralised/alkaline | pH = 6.5–8.5 Acidity = 0 mg/L | Fe2+ = 0 mg/L Fe3+ = 0 mg/L | SO4 = 500–10,000 mg/L Al = 0 mg/L |
Category ** | L = Zinc ≤ 1 mg/L** | M = Zinc ≤ 25 mg/L ** | H = Zinc > 25 mg/L ** |
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Thisani, S.K.; Kallon, D.V.V.; Byrne, P. Geochemical Classification of Global Mine Water Drainage. Sustainability 2020, 12, 10244. https://doi.org/10.3390/su122410244
Thisani SK, Kallon DVV, Byrne P. Geochemical Classification of Global Mine Water Drainage. Sustainability. 2020; 12(24):10244. https://doi.org/10.3390/su122410244
Chicago/Turabian StyleThisani, Sandisiwe Khanyisa, Daramy Vondi Von Kallon, and Patrick Byrne. 2020. "Geochemical Classification of Global Mine Water Drainage" Sustainability 12, no. 24: 10244. https://doi.org/10.3390/su122410244