Topsoil Transfer from Natural Renosterveld to Degraded Old Fields Facilitates Native Vegetation Recovery
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Survey Design and Field Sampling
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Species Diversity and Cover
3.2. Species Composition
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions and Implications for Restoration
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Family Name | Soil Transfer | Natural | Old Field | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Trees and shrubs | ||||
Relhania fruticose | Asteraceae | * | ** | - |
Helichrysum spp. | Asteraceae | - | * | - |
Hermannia scabra | Malvaceae | ** | *** | - |
Pteronia spp. | Asteraceae | * | ** | - |
Dicerothamnus rhinocerotis | Asteraceae | *** | **** | ** |
Eriocephalus africanus | Asteraceae | ** | *** | - |
Metalasia spp. | Asteraceae | - | ** | - |
Pelargonium myrrhifolium | Geraniaceae | * | ** | - |
Cliffortia ruscifolia | Rosaceae | * | ** | - |
Thesium spp. | Santalaceae | - | ** | - |
Leysera gnaphalodes | Asteraceae | * | ** | - |
Aspalathus spp. | Fabaceae | ** | ** | - |
Stoebe plumose | Asteraceae | ** | **** | - |
Pelargonium spp. | Geraniaceae | * | ** | - |
Leucadendron corymbosum | Proteaceae | ** | *** | - |
Muraltia heisteria | Polygalaceae | * | *** | - |
Hermannia spp. | Malvaceae | *** | *** | * |
Asparagus spp. | Asparagaceae | ** | *** | - |
Athanasia trifurcate | Asteraceae | * | ** | - |
Searsia spp. | Anacardiaceae | - | ** | - |
Leucadendron salignum | Proteaceae | - | *** | - |
Montinia caryophyllacea | Montiniaceae | - | ** | - |
Felicia spp. | Asteraceae | - | * | - |
Oedera spp. | Asteraceae | - | ** | - |
Herbs | ||||
Dimorphotheca pluvialis | Asteraceae | *** | **** | **** |
Ursinia anthemoides | Asteraceae | ** | *** | *** |
Thesium spp. | Santalaceae | * | ** | ** |
Hypochaeris spp. | Iridaceae | ** | ** | * |
Arctotis acaulis | Asteraceae | ** | *** | ** |
Arctotheca spp. | Asteraceae | - | ** | - |
Berkheya armata | Asteraceae | - | * | - |
Rumex acetosella | Polygonaceae | ** | ** | ** |
Monopsis lutea | Campanulaceae | * | ** | ** |
Plantago Africana | Plantaginaceae | ** | *** | - |
Stellaria media | Caryophyllaceae | - | * | - |
Graminoids, geophytes and restio | ||||
Tribolium uniolae | Poaceae | ** | ** | * |
Aristea spp. | Iridaceae | * | ** | - |
Aristida junciformis | Poaceae | - | ** | - |
Chlorophytum spp. | Anthericaceae | - | * | - |
Ehrharta longifolia | Poaceae | *** | ** | *** |
Briza maxima | Poaceae | *** | ** | ***** |
Aristea Africana | Iridaceae | ** | * | - |
Themeda triandra | Poaceae | ** | * | - |
Tribolium echinatum | Poaceae | * | ** | ** |
Bobartia spp. | Iridaceae | * | * | * |
Oxalis purpurea | Oxalidaceae | *** | *** | **** |
Babiana spp. | Iridaceae | - | ** | - |
Cynodon dactylon | Poaceae | **** | ** | ***** |
Elegia filacea | Restionaceae | ** | ** | - |
Elegia capensis | Restionaceae | - | ** | - |
Ixia spp. | Iridaceae | - | * | - |
Cyphia bulbosa | Campanulaceae | - | ** | - |
Bromus diandrus | Poaceae | *** | ** | **** |
Bromus pectinatus | Poaceae | *** | - | **** |
Poa annua | Poaceae | - | * | ** |
Lolium spp. | Poaceae | *** | - | **** |
Tribolium hispidum | Poaceae | - | ** | - |
Pentaschistis spp. | Poaceae | - | * | - |
Ficinia spp. | Cyperaceae | - | ** | * |
Romulea rosea | Iridaceae | ** | *** | - |
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Diversity Indices | Sites | One-Way ANOVA | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Soil Transfer | Natural | Old Fields | F (2:89)-Values | p-Values | |
Species richness | 18.97 ± 0.98 b | 42.73 ± 0.68 a | 13.63 ± 0.43 c | 498.84 | 0.001 |
Shannon–Wiener | 2.38 ± 0.05 b | 3.28 ± 0.03 a | 2.01 ± 0.03 c | 301.46 | 0.001 |
Evenness index | 0.82 ± 0.01 ab | 0.87 ± 0.01 a | 0.78 ± 0.01 b | 34.56 | 0.001 |
Simpsons index of diversity | 0.88 ± 0.01 b | 0.94 ± 0.01 a | 0.83 ± 0.01 c | 100.05 | 0.001 |
Species richness per growth form | |||||
Richness of trees and shrubs | 9.27 ± 0.48 b | 16.93 ± 0.52 a | 4.20 ± 0.29 c | 210.10 | 0.001 |
Richness of herbs | 4.93 ± 0.31 b | 9.50 ± 0.23 a | 4.37 ± 0.19 b | 127.36 | 0.001 |
Richness of graminoids, geophytes and restio | 5.53 ± 0.61 b | 18.76 ± 0.28 a | 5.10 ± 0.15 b | 394.23 | 0.001 |
Growth Form | ANOSIM | SIMPER (Percentage of Similarity) | Sørensen Similarity Index | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Global R | p-Value | Soil Transfer | Natural | Old Fields | Soil Transfer and Natural | Soil Transfer and Old Fields | Natural and Old Fields | |
All plant species | 0.55 | 0.001 | 43.75 | 45.99 | 64.42 | 0.80 | 0.63 | 0.48 |
Trees and shrubs | 0.41 | 0.001 | 35.71 | 50.76 | 19.15 | 0.80 | 0.22 | 0.15 |
Herbs | 0.11 | 0.001 | 38.62 | 49.74 | 49.93 | 0.84 | 0.93 | 0.78 |
Graminoids, geophytes and restio | 0.37 | 0.001 | 50.67 | 35.94 | 73.31 | 0.68 | 0.74 | 0.57 |
Sites | |||
---|---|---|---|
Soil Transfer vs. Natural (Average Dissimilarity 65.25%) | Soil Transfer vs. Old Fields (Average Dissimilarity 58.35%) | Natural vs. Old Fields (Average Dissimilarity 74.74%) | |
Trees and shrubs | |||
Hermannia spp. | 1.86 | 3.69 | 2.11 |
Dicerothamnus rhinocerotis | 1.73 | 3.42 | 2.13 |
Hermannia scabra | 2.02 | 2.68 | 2.31 |
Stoebe plumosa | 2.15 | 2.68 | 2.97 |
Leucadendron corymbosum | 2.01 | 2.68 | 2.26 |
Asparagus spp. | 2.00 | 2.65 | 2.21 |
Eriocephalus africanus | 2.02 | 2.60 | 2.29 |
Aspalathus spp. | 1.86 | 2.58 | 1.53 |
Cliffortia ruscifolia | 1.65 | 1.35 | 1.41 |
Pteronia spp. | 1.67 | 1.32 | 1.45 |
Herbs | |||
Ursinia anthemoides | 2.00 | 3.41 | 1.83 |
Arctotis acaulis | 2.01 | 3.17 | 1.96 |
Rumex acetosella | 1.87 | 3.16 | 1.83 |
Thesium spp. | 1.74 | 2.90 | 1.82 |
Hypochaeris spp. | 1.85 | 2.88 | 1.64 |
Monopsis lutea | 1.64 | 2.86 | 1.78 |
Plantago africana | 2.00 | 2.73 | 2.25 |
Graminoids, geophytes and restio | |||
Ehrharta longifolia | 2.01 | 3.15 | 1.95 |
Lolium spp. | 2.29 | 2.96 | 3.00 |
Oxalis purpurea | 1.88 | 2.95 | 1.71 |
Bromus diandrus | 2.01 | 2.93 | 2.12 |
Bromus pectinatus | 2.33 | 2.89 | 3.00 |
Tribolium echinatum | 1.68 | 2.84 | 1.79 |
Tribolium uniolae | 1.85 | 2.81 | 1.65 |
Briza maxima | 2.00 | 2.73 | 2.24 |
Romulea rosea | 1.94 | 2.73 | 1.89 |
Elegia filacea | 1.87 | 2.68 | 1.59 |
Cynodon dactylon | 2.21 | 1.40 | 2.35 |
Aristea spp. | 1.72 | 1.35 | 1.53 |
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Ruwanza, S. Topsoil Transfer from Natural Renosterveld to Degraded Old Fields Facilitates Native Vegetation Recovery. Sustainability 2020, 12, 3833. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093833
Ruwanza S. Topsoil Transfer from Natural Renosterveld to Degraded Old Fields Facilitates Native Vegetation Recovery. Sustainability. 2020; 12(9):3833. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093833
Chicago/Turabian StyleRuwanza, Sheunesu. 2020. "Topsoil Transfer from Natural Renosterveld to Degraded Old Fields Facilitates Native Vegetation Recovery" Sustainability 12, no. 9: 3833. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093833