Universal Access to Safe Drinking Water: Escaping the Traps of Non-Frugal Technologies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Community-Scale Safe Drinking Water Supply
4. Affordability and Sustainability of Selected Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems
5. Sand Filtration Systems: The Partly Overlooked Universal Solution
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BC | Biochar |
BSF(s) | Biological sand filter(s) |
Fe0 | Metallic or zero-valent iron |
GAC | Granular activated carbon |
RWH | Rainwater harvesting |
NGO | Non-governmental organization |
O & M | Operation and maintenance |
POU | Point-of-use |
RSF(s) | Rapid sand filter(s) |
SDG | Sustainable Development Goal |
SOPAS | Solar pasteurization |
SSF(s) | Slow sand filter(s) |
WATER | Water Applied Testing and Environmental Research |
WQQI | Water Quality and Quantity Index |
WTS | Water treatment system |
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Factor | Commercial Treatment Unit | Frugal Treatment System |
---|---|---|
Participation | Very limited public participation | Active public participation |
Awareness | Citizens alienated from know-how | Citizens mastering the design and operation |
Funding | Highly subsidized | Mostly full cost recovery, and low-cost |
Resilience | Limited adaptation to changes | Enhanced adaptation to changes |
Social conflicts | More likely | Less likely |
Water quality | High for selected species | Adaptable and fit-for-purpose |
Anno | Event | Refs. |
---|---|---|
1804 | Demonstration of the efficiency of SSFs by John Gibb in Paisley (Scotland) | [10] |
1829 | Adoption of SSFs for the water supply of Chelsea (London/England) | [10] |
1881 | Fe0 amended SSFs for the water supply of Antwerp (Belgium) | [76] |
1883 | Fe0-based revolving purifier for the water supply of Antwerp (Belgium) | [77] |
1886 | SSFs demonstrated to remove bacteria by Frankland | [78] |
1951 | Domestic steel wool water filters for radionuclides removal | [79] |
1980s | Renewed interest in SSFs for small and medium communities | [45,47] |
1985 | Schmutzdecke shown to remove coliforms by Bellamy | [45,47] |
1992 | Down-scaling of SSFs for the domestic needs by David H. Manz (BSFs) | [80] |
1990s | Attempts to improve the efficiency of SSF by reinforcing biological activities | [81,82] |
2000 | Fe0 amended BSFs for the As and pathogen removal in Bangladesh | [83] |
2006 | Development of Kanchan Arsenic filters in Nepal | [84] |
2007 | Development of SONO Arsenic filters in Bangladesh | [85] |
2008 | Development of IITB Arsenic filters in West Bengal (India) | [37,40] |
2010 | Fe0 amended BSFs for the As, pathogen, and U removal in rural Canada | [39] |
2012 | Efficiency of Kanchan Arsenic filters disproved | [86] |
2012 | Adoption of SSFs for the water supply in rural Switzerland | [87] |
>2012 | Implementation of several aggregate-amended SSFs for rural water supply | [52,88] |
2016 | Development of the modular SSF/biochar filters for rural water supply | [35,89] |
2019 | Domestic steel wool-based water filter operating for one year | [43,68] |
Biochar | Metal Iron | PAUL | Autarcon | |
---|---|---|---|---|
(Euro) | (Euro) | (Euro) | (Euro) | |
Reference | [49] | [96] | [51] | [3] |
Water availability (e.g., well drilling) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Building infrastructure | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Water pumping | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Water supply system | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Material cost (O & M) | 1000 | 1250 | 0 | 13,500 |
Water treatment system (WTS) | 1500 | 2000 | 2000 | 12,000 |
Energy supply | 0 | 0 | 0 | 500 |
Installation (labor) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3500 |
Operation and Maintenance (per year) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1004 |
Transport of WTS | 0 | 0 | 200 | 1000 |
Customs duty | 0 | 0 | 100 | 3910 |
Spare parts (per year) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 917 |
Total costs | 2500 | 3250 | 2300 | 36,331 |
Ratio Autarcon/X | 14.5 | 11.2 | 15.8 | 1.0 |
Technique | Expertise | Removal Efficiency for | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
(Years) | Chemicals | Odors | Pathogens | |
SSF | 190 | + | ++ | ++ |
Fe0 | >160 | ++ | +++ | +++ |
Biochar | 20 | +++ | +++ | ++ |
Bone char | >160 | +++ | +++ | ++ |
Fe0 SSF | 150 | +++ | +++ | +++ |
BC SSF | 15 | +++ | +++ | +++ |
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Huang, Z.; Nya, E.L.; Cao, V.; Gwenzi, W.; Rahman, M.A.; Noubactep, C. Universal Access to Safe Drinking Water: Escaping the Traps of Non-Frugal Technologies. Sustainability 2021, 13, 9645. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13179645
Huang Z, Nya EL, Cao V, Gwenzi W, Rahman MA, Noubactep C. Universal Access to Safe Drinking Water: Escaping the Traps of Non-Frugal Technologies. Sustainability. 2021; 13(17):9645. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13179645
Chicago/Turabian StyleHuang, Zhe, Esther Laurentine Nya, Viet Cao, Willis Gwenzi, Mohammad Azizur Rahman, and Chicgoua Noubactep. 2021. "Universal Access to Safe Drinking Water: Escaping the Traps of Non-Frugal Technologies" Sustainability 13, no. 17: 9645. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13179645