2.1. Service Robots
The industry 4.0 revolution has made many vital changes. One of the most critical of these changes was the implementation of robot technology. Robotic technology is beginning to be widely used in industrial organizations, and it has proven especially helpful in production environments [
26]. Although the robot technology that comes with industry 4.0 is perceived as a disruptive technology [
27], the appeal of this technological innovation is much more robust in service industries (such as health, transportation, etc.), which are considered labor-intensive industries [
28]. Therefore, robots in service industries can be characterized as a revolution in technological innovation [
29].
The term “robot” comes from the Czech word “robota”, which translates as “forced labor”. While the concept was formerly used to mean stupid machines that perform trivial, repetitive tasks, it has evolved to describe intelligent anthropomorphic robots in popular culture [
28]. Robots are characterized as “reprogrammable multifunctional” devices that are programmed to move materials, parts, tools, or specialized equipment to execute a variety of activities [
30]. Robots can perform a commonly complex set of actions. They can make autonomous decisions and have rapid adaptation to their environment, depending on data collected from multiple sensors and other sources, such as the perceive–think–act paradigm [
29].
A service robot is a technology capable of doing physical activities, operating independently without human intervention, and being managed by computers without operator interaction [
31]. Additionally, a service robot is characterized as an autonomous and adaptive interface that performs practical tasks for humans or equipment, interacts with them, and communicates with them [
29]. A service robot is a robot that can interact with and engage people in a social environment [
32]. They represent the addressee with whom a customer interacts in front-line service and can thus be seen as social beings. What is significant in social interaction is that the robot is frequently a social entity that is partially automated throughout the service encounter; this refers to giving consumers the impression that they are interacting with another social entity [
29].
Service robots can provide value-added services while complying with safety standards in human–robot interactions. Although functional tasks performed by service robots can also be achieved through other technologies (such as kiosks, mobile payments, and touch screens), service robots can provide front-line services where interaction is essential for customer experiences [
33]. Service robots can change their sound patterns and speed to appear relevant and capable. For instance, finishing shades with a low pitch creates the illusion that service robots can assist customers in resolving their problems. While speaking, service robots face customers directly to communicate their interests. When they interact with clients, they use body language and facial expressions to aid incomprehension. For instance, when greeting customers from a distance, robots send a “Yes, I understand you” message accompanied by a slight nod or smile [
34].
There is not yet a fully automated robot for the service sector. Most robotic solutions still require human control, and some autonomous solutions are limited to simplified functions [
8]. Robots with social functions will soon become popular in human society. Despite significant technological advances in recent years, robots’ capacity to interact intuitively and socially with humans is still very limited [
35].
The service robot deployment model proposes that service robots perform nearly any cognitively complex task and almost all low-emotional/low-social-complexity tasks. While service robots are incapable of deep emotional engagement, front-line workers will be responsible for emotionally and socially tricky service jobs [
28]. As long as service robots fulfill the functional, social-emotional, and relational needs that encourage group cohesion, they will be well accepted by consumers [
29].
A Softbank Robotics-developed robot, called Pepper, is the first commercially available robot with emotional intelligence. An autonomous robot endowed with the ability to read body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice helps to enable personalization in a market where customization is a growing necessity [
36]. One example is when people felt upset, so it made them feel better. In addition, it might be able to recognize individuals by their voices and faces. It included sensors for gaming and social interactions that were operated with hand gestures. Companies in Europe, Asia, and North America use Pepper. For example, France’s national railroad, the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer, used the social networking tool Pepper to deliver information about trains and their surroundings and entertain customers waiting. They also recorded customers’ levels of satisfaction with the services at these locations. Asia-based Pizza Hut uses the Pepper smart appliance to greet customers, take orders, and process orders. While on the Costa Cruise Lines’ service, passengers can enjoy the assistance of Pepper, which is available in three languages, English, German, and Italian. The most well-known asset at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada, is a technologist who is frequently seen serving guests with answers to hotel-specific details, guiding them, telling stories, and snapping selfies [
34].
2.2. Service Robots in Hospitality
Service automation and robotic technologies have affected different areas of hotel operations. Hotels have implemented self-service kiosks that eliminate the need for front office personnel, letting customers complete check-in and check-out procedures without assistance. Over time, check-in/out services have been made available from mobile devices to further convenience and speed [
37]. Robots meant to perform various tasks, such as delivering food and other things, checking in and out, and providing security and information, are increasingly being employed in the hospitality and tourism industries [
7].
Service robots are categorized as semi-automatic or wholly automated, depending on their level of automation. Semi-automatic robots can do so with programming or human input via remote controls. On the contrary, automated robots are conscious agents capable of reacting to changes in their environment and exchanging information without external control [
38].
In anticipation of service robots providing reliable, convenient, and efficient service, several top hotels have lately adopted service robots to create distinctive guest experiences. For example, the Henn-na Hotel in Japan, which debuted in 2015 and was named the world’s first robot-powered hotel by Guinness World Records, employs dinosaur- and anthropomorphic-shaped robots to carry up human staff duties [
39]. Since then, this pioneering robot has expanded its operations into new geographies. The hotel employs dinosaur receptionists, robot movers, robot cloakrooms, and in-room personal robot assistants. While a fully robotic hotel remains a rarity today, hotels worldwide use intelligent automation for several customer-facing processes, including self-check-in, virtual personal assistants, and room delivery robots [
31].
In much the same way, the Hotel Icon in Hong Kong has conducted trials with two different types of robots. They provide a service delivery robot and a cleaning robot developed by Konia Minolta [
39]. A robotic butler distributes poolside towels and snacks at the Aloft Cupertino in California. Additionally, this robot is capable of delivering ordered things to guests through elevators. Botlr, Aloft’s first robotic servant, is trained to bring “towels” and “small nibbles” to guests’ rooms in response to their requests for snacks or toiletries [
6]. Recently, robots began working in restaurants as chefs. For instance, CaliBurguer has developed Flippy, a robot that cooks hamburgers in Pasadena, California. Additionally, students at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and famous chef Daniel Boulud founded the Spyce restaurant in Boston, where food is cooked entirely by robots in an automated kitchen. It is widely regarded as the first restaurant to feature a robotic kitchen capable of cooking intricate dishes [
40]. Savioke’s Relay is employed in various hotels and primarily conducts delivery jobs in coordination with humans. Relay’s cameras and sensors enable it to discern room numbers, navigate busy corridors, and take elevators without clashing with anything. When the Relay reaches its location, its lid automatically opens to let visitors receive their orders, including food and supplies. Guests are requested to submit feedback for Relay on a screen so that it is easier to ensure quality. Relay shakes his body in response to a favorable response from the guest system. This instance serves as a good representation of technological advancement and human–robot collaboration in hotels. Service robots must identify user emotions via bodily movements, facial expressions, and speech to respond compassionately during the contact to collaborate effectively with people. Advanced service robots must behave consistently with human personnel, displaying natural facial expressions and emotional responses [
39].
Technology can change the way people see, perceive, and demand new technologies by affecting people’s lives and perceptions. For instance, robots serve as information providers for guests in the hotel industry but may require interaction [
41]. However, the community may oppose using service robots to deliver human services. In the literature, studies are indicating that the resistance to consumer service robots is vital, even if service robots in the tourist and hotel industry increase [
42]. Reasons for this may include the lack of human contact with robots and ethical concerns about possible increased unemployment. Service robots replacing human personnel can pose a psychological challenge to the traditional view of service [
33]. For instance, the anxiety induced by a robot may discourage humans from interacting with it [
35]. In tourism and hospitality environments that rely heavily on human interaction, replacing human workers with robots alters the nature of the service experience by incorporating human–robot interactions and the potential to alter customer attitudes and behaviors [
11]. In addition, technology anxiety expresses the concerns and fears of consumers about using new technology. In this context, technology anxiety is recognized as an essential psychological precursor affecting the adoption of new technology [
10]. In other words, a customer’s willingness to adopt new technology hinges on their confidence in how valuable that technology will be [
29].
Individuals’ acceptance and adoption of new technologies have been examined using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). TAM is used to measure the level of resistance people must use new technologies, identify why people accept new technologies, predict how users will respond to new and emerging technologies, and examine how and how quickly the system and its practices are evolving [
43]. The theoretical foundation of the model is based on Fishbein and Ajzen’s Theory of Reasoned Action, which was first proposed in 1975. A related issue is that abstract concepts, such as beliefs and values, have weakened the Theory of Reasonable Action. As a result, TAM was refined over time. The model has become the most popular theory on the use of information technology and the best way to gauge people’s intentions when it comes to using it [
44]. More than a quarter of a century ago, Fred Davis first proposed TAM, and it has since become the standard model for research that investigates the influence of various variables on the adoption of new technology [
45]. TAM is a significant model used to predict and explain customers’ adoption of further information and communication technologies. The model indicates users’ acceptance of technology by how useful, easy to use, and desirable it appears [
46]. Based on the theory, the perception of ease of use and usefulness regarding information technology impacts how individuals use the technology [
47]. Researchers have developed the TAM over time. Following those years, a modified version of the original TAM was created and known as the TAM 2. The acceptance of new technology is predicted by how much it benefits the individual and how useful and straightforward it is. The new model was successfully tested, and the results confirmed its suitability [
48].
TAM intends to help businesses predict how their customers will respond to their various types of innovative technology. Davis et al. (1989) [
49] conducted a study and found that ease of use and usefulness were two critical reasons influencing individuals’ choice of information technologies. Some extrinsic variables affect individuals, organizations, and technology regarding usefulness and ease of use in the study. People’s propensity to perform better in their work by using technology is known as perceived usefulness; Similarly, perceived ease of use refers to people’s initial interest and ability to quickly pick up and use a particular technology without much effort [
49]. The model’s attitude, which results from emotions and ideas that accumulate, conveys the individual’s emotional or cognitive response to the system. People’s attitudes toward using information system applications can be described as evaluating their willingness to use the system [
50].
The TAM has an essential explanatory power in identifying the reasons for end-users to accept new technologies. Making the best use of new technology is influenced by an individual’s characteristics, expectations, and perceptions [
51].
At this point, it is necessary to emphasize the advantages and disadvantages that customers think they will gain from preferring robots instead of humans. The advantages perceived by customers represent competitive benefits that they can get from robot services but not from human services. If customers think that an innovative service type is more advantageous than a traditional one, they prefer it [
52]. Researchers discovered that customers in hotels and other lodging establishments accept and even enjoy robots due to their functionality, efficiency, and ease of use [
53]. It is stated in the study done by Tavitiyaman et al. (2020) [
54] that customers’ perceptions of robot technologies greatly influence their preferences for hotels.
There are numerous positive examples of robots assisting their human counterparts. However, not everyone views robots positively. The more negative people’s attitudes toward robots are, the less likely they are to use them [
35]. Attitude is described as the acquired disposition of an individual’s favorable or unfavorable attitude toward service robots, influencing the individual’s thoughts and behavior. Attitudes are formed as a result of intricate psychological processes and serve as precursors to behavioral responses. They are critical factors in the adoption of robots [
55].
As a result of their study, Christou et al. (2020) [
41] found that people who were excited about new technology and advances in technology were concerned that robots could replace humans, and they could lead to social deterioration. Moreover, even people who are unconvinced about how technology shapes and influences society have admitted that robots are essential. While most respondents agreed, respondents felt that the most effective way to pull customers in was by giving robots human-like features and design and including human-like emotions, personality, and voice in their approach. The participants believe that a robot in a hospitality or tourism environment should be a humanoid rather than any other type of machine.
Therefore, the following hypotheses have been formed:
Hypothesis 1 (H1). The perceived advantage of service robots positively affects the intention to use them.
Hypothesis 2 (H2). The perceived disadvantage of service robots negatively affects the intention to use them.
The evaluation of the relative rewards offered to the customer and the sacrifices he makes in return determines the perceived value [
56]. Perceived value is typically the result of a trade-off between what customers receive and what they are willing to give up in exchange for it [
57]. Perceived value is defined as an overall assessment of a customer’s perceived benefits and sacrifices, as seen from the utility perspective. In other words, customers can cognitively integrate the things they purchase to purchase goods with their perceptions of these items [
58].
It is possible that companies providing good service will not be enough to attract new customers or keep existing customers engaged because customers seek value in the form of a combination of price and quality. In order to gain a competitive advantage, businesses must investigate the role and impact of perceived value by customers [
59].
Therefore, the following hypotheses have been formed:
Hypothesis 3 (H3). The perceived value of service robots positively affects the intention to use them.
The model of the research is shown in
Figure 1.