2.1. The Food Waste Phenomenon
Food loss is defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as “the decrease in the mass (dry matter quantity) or nutritional value (quality) of food that was originally intended for human consumption” [
22]. Food waste is defined by the FAO as “food appropriate for human consumption being discarded, whether or not after it is kept beyond its expiry date or left to spoil” [
22]. In this paper, we refer to the food wasted at the consumer level.
Many international initiatives for reducing food loss and food waste have taken place, given the high importance of the topic [
31]. The FAO’s “Sustainable Development Goal 12.3” is aimed at reducing food loss across the supply chain and halving per capita food waste at the retail and consumer levels by 2030 [
32], as food waste is considered a major contributor to the three planetary crises: (1) nature and biodiversity loss; (2) climate change; and (3) pollution and waste [
33]. For example, in 2015, food waste was estimated to be the cause of 8% of the global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, making the impact of food waste emissions on global warming the equivalent of almost 87% of the global road transport emissions [
34].
Some European Union (EU) legislation is, directly or indirectly, related to food waste. However, it creates a low impact as it contradicts the interests of the stakeholders and, thus, in-depth research into the consequences and interactions of food waste legislation should be performed for more harmonious integration [
35]. As for Romania, its food waste legislation is based on the EU legislation [
36]. For example, Law no. 217/2016 [
37], on reducing food waste, states that all food industry economic operators should initiate food waste reduction campaigns, as well as become involved in such campaigns developed by the authorities.
Around 931 million tons of food waste were generated globally in 2019, 61% in households, 26% in food services, and 13% in retail [
33]. According to Statista [
38], an average of 74 kg of food/person was wasted worldwide in 2019. Food waste has been deemed especially problematic in high-income countries because of wasteful food distribution channels and the consumption patterns of citizens [
34]. In developed countries, consumer food accounts for a big part of the total food waste [
10].
On the basis of the 2019 data for Europe, around 72.75 kg of food/person/year are estimated to be wasted on average at the household level [
33]. However, Eurostat [
39] concluded that 6.8% of European Union citizens could not afford a meal that includes meat, fish, chicken, or vegetarian equivalents every second day in 2019 (the percentage has been declining since 2012, when it was approximately 11%). Globally, almost half of all deaths in children under five years old are estimated to be caused by undernourishment-related diseases, and around 822 million people suffer from poor nutrition [
40]. Developments in digitization and infrastructure could help in reducing food waste by connecting the potential sources of food waste with consumers in need of food [
29,
41].
For Romania, UNEP estimated, based on 2019 data, that around 70 kg of food are wasted per person per year at the household level [
33]. Household food waste was around 10.5% in 2016 [
42], while, in 2020, the level was reduced to 6.5% [
43]. The consumer price index for food products was 116.39% for December 2016 (i.e., the reference period) to December 2020 (i.e., the comparison period) [
44], while the average net monthly earnings per total economy for the same period was 153.78% [
45], suggesting an increase in the population’s purchasing power for the period. Thus, the reduction in the food waste of Romanian citizens for 2020, compared with 2016, could be the result of public awareness campaigns, the COVID-19 pandemic influencing consumer behavior, and/or differences in the research methodology and demographics.
Regarding the psychological aspects of food waste, the study of Graham-Rowe et al. [
46] has shown that people are concerned about food waste. Throwing away food enacts a feeling of guilt among consumers [
47]. Looking specifically at Romanian consumers, Cantaragiu [
48] discovered that there are major differences between the genders and age segments in their attitudes towards food waste (e.g., 20–30 year-old women are more likely to report feelings of guilt after throwing away food and see food waste as part of the social inequality phenomenon, while older women associate food waste prevention with financial responsibility). Another study characterized Romanian consumers based on three clusters: (1) careless—consumers who have a low level of education, throw away food, and come from rural areas; (2) precautious—consumers who have mixed sociodemographic characteristics, do not throw away food, and are informed about food waste issues; and (3) ignorant—consumers who have a high level of education, throw away food, and come from urban areas [
28]. Seemingly, the level of income or education is not linked to adopting anti-waste behaviors. Moreover, it was discovered that Romanian citizens who waste food do not report feelings of guilt for their personal actions but, instead, consider that the higher levels in the food supply chain are responsible [
28].
Fully understanding the causes of food waste requires an integrated approach that also accounts for the transactions and interactions along the supply chain [
49,
50]. This importance was underlined by the work of Aschemann-Witzel et al. [
21], and Lee [
51], who showed that the amount of food wasted in households is correlated with actions taken at the retailer level, such as selling in bulk packaging or using promotions.
Researchers have studied the causes of consumer food waste and the barriers to reducing this problem. Schanes et al. [
16] synthetized the main food waste reasons into two main categories, based on their literature review of prior studies: (1) understandings and perceptions of food waste, and (2) food-related household practices and routines, i.e., planning, shopping, storage, cooking, eating, managing leftovers, assessing edibility, and disposal [
16]. Leverenz et al. [
14] identified similar causes, related to cooking, storage, and using leftovers or the bad handling of food products. Another cause of consumer food waste is rooted in the core values of consumers. For instance, Minton et al. [
52] discovered that people who adopt restrictive religious norms (e.g., fasting) produce a higher level of food waste, compared with people who identify with supportive religious norms (e.g., food sharing), who show more interest in reducing their food waste. Wakefield and Axon [
53] have identified the lack of education regarding food waste as a barrier to reducing food waste at the household level, as well as excess packaging, cultural norms, and social marketing, while Janssens et al. [
54] consider that the lack of food preparation planning seems to be among the most important barriers to reducing the food-wasting behavior of consumers. As for Romanian consumers, one study identified the main reasons for throwing away food (i.e., expiration date, a long refrigerator storage period, inadequate storage, food appearance deterioration), and recommended the implementation of education campaigns and shopping list planning as possible solutions [
30].
2.2. Measures to Reduce Food Waste
As the awareness regarding the food waste phenomenon has grown, measures to reduce it have been studied and used at the governmental level, as well as at the private and consumer levels.
Policymakers try to shape consumer behavior based on four primary strategies: (1) the “punishment” approach; (2) the “rewards-based” approach; (3) the “persuasion” strategy; and (4) the “social communication” strategy, where consumer behavior is influenced by other people [
55]. The activities performed by governments in order to reduce food waste, as reviewed by Auld et al. [
56], include eco-labels, environmental management system standards and audits, voluntary programs, and other governmental mechanisms that involve businesses and NGOs.
The actions aimed at reducing food loss and waste can be categorized as: (1) prevention; (2) recovery; and (3) recycling actions, also referred to as the food waste hierarchy [
57]. Preventive actions are at the base of the hierarchy and are considered the most efficient measures [
20], while recycling should be the last resort when dealing with food waste. Thus, food waste reduction campaigns could focus on three outcomes: (1) reducing food waste; (2) reusing unconsumed food; and (3) recycling food [
58].
Alternative consumption models, and the rise of the sharing economy, have made food sharing a method of food waste reduction, a measure which can now also be supported through the use of digital applications [
59,
60]. Morone et al. [
61] researched the results of the food wasting behavior of students, living in private shared flats, who were instructed to purchase, cook, and consume food collectively. The authors found that, in order for these measures to have a positive impact on the reduction of food waste, three key enablers are needed: (1) environmentally friendly behavior and economic awareness; (2) skills; and (3) collaborative behaviors [
61]. Reynolds et al. [
23] proposed a guideline for food waste interventions that includes: (1) intervention design; (2) monitoring and measurement; (3) moderation and mediation; (4) reporting; and (5) systemic efforts.
Should food waste still occur, it should be valorized by being converted into useful products, such as chemicals, materials, and fuels [
62,
63]. For the valorization of food waste, the collaboration of different stakeholders from public and private institutions is important [
64].
While some previous research shows that raising awareness among consumers may support food waste reduction [
35,
65], numerous studies, reviewed by Septianto et al. [
3], have shown that emotional aspects must also be taken into account, aside from the cognitive aspects, such as education regarding food waste. Graham-Rowe et al. [
46] concluded that even if avoiding negative emotions (e.g., guilt, regret) was at the basis of minimizing food waste, there could be other, potentially conflicting, personal goals (e.g., minimizing inconveniences) that might hinder attempts at household food waste reduction.
Online social networks have gained increased attention as a medium for awareness campaigns aimed at reducing food waste [
66]. Goldsmith and Goldsmith [
55] have stated that online social networks can have a similar effect as real interactions with opinion leaders. The research of Young et al. [
67] analyzed the impact of a campaign led by a UK retailer that addressed food waste and contradicts the statement of Goldsmith and Goldsmith [
55]. The initiative of the retailer was based on information in the retailer’s magazine, in e-newsletters, and on Facebook. The results of the study have shown that people who took part in the Facebook initiative did not perform better, in terms of food waste reduction, than the control group [
55].
Other methods that are used to deliver campaigns that aim to reduce food waste are websites, leaflets, posters, media and PR, waste challenges, community talks, regular press releases, providing tips and techniques, exhibitions, and others [
24]. Most of the campaigns that were reviewed by the authors showed a statistically significant improvement.
A review of actions taken to reduce food waste at the consumer level, performed by Kim et al. [
58], and Stöckli et al. [
68], reveals that most of these actions were based on informing and educating consumers. Interventions that rely on informing the consumers have sometimes proven to be ineffective. In the study of Wansink and van Ittersum [
69], informing the attendees of a health conference about the negative effect that large plates have on food waste did not change their behavior. On the other hand, the education campaign performed in a Portuguese university canteen managed to reduce plate waste by raising awareness and suggesting techniques to reduce food waste [
24].
The research of Aschemann-Witzel et al. [
21] points out the factors that influence information and capacity-building initiatives, such as collaboration between organizations and supply chain actors, timing, and competencies. The development and maintenance of these initiatives depended on the management of attention and achievement on a large scale, while successfully reaching consumers depended on having a positive focus and easiness [
21].
With the advancement of new technologies, research has also been oriented towards how they can reduce food waste throughout the supply chain. Artificial intelligence, machine learning, big data analytics, and the Internet of Things have changed the paradigms of several business sectors but have also contributed to raising the efficiency of the public sector through their utilization for public policies [
70]. Technologies, such as wireless sensors and the Internet of Everything, can not only contribute to ensuring the quality and safety of food, but can also send information to companies regarding preferences [
71].
Assessing the effectiveness of food waste prevention measures is required in order to identify the initiatives that deliver the most relevant outcome. However, there are challenges in evaluating the effectiveness of prevention measures, mainly due to the difficulty of assessing the potential food waste reduction generated by them [
72].