Private Sector Engagement in the Self-Governance of Urban Sustainable Infrastructure: A Study on Alternative Fueling Infrastructure in the United States
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Urban Infrastructure and Private Sector Participation
3. Context: Clean Cities Program
4. Hypotheses: Self-Governance of Alternative Fueling Infrastructure
5. Data, Measures and Methods
6. Results
7. Discussion
8. Conclusions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Variable | Mean | SD | Min | Max | Observations | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Privately-owned alt. fuel stations | overall | 0.9855 | 3.7012 | 0 | 75 | N = 11,964 |
between | 2.6018 | 0 | 24.9166 | n = 997 | ||
within | 2.6335 | −20.9311 | 53.6522 | T = 12 | ||
Utility-owned alt. fuel stations | overall | 0.1147 | 0.7154 | 0 | 20 | N = 11,964 |
between | 0.5105 | 0 | 6.8333 | n = 997 | ||
within | 0.5105 | −5.7187 | 13.2813 | T = 12 | ||
Public-owned alt. fuel stations | overall | 0.4093 | 1.7842 | 0 | 42 | N = 11,964 |
between | 1.4310 | 0 | 17.1666 | n = 997 | ||
within | 1.0665 | −13.7574 | 25.2426 | T = 12 | ||
Clean Cities coalitions dummy | overall | 0.4432 | 0.4968 | 0 | 1 | N = 11,964 |
between | 0.4903 | 0 | 1 | n = 997 | ||
within | 0.0816 | −0.3901 | 1.2764 | T = 12 | ||
Incentive: loans | overall | 0.0889 | 0.3001 | 0 | 2 | N = 11,964 |
between | 0.1724 | 0 | 0.5 | n = 997 | ||
within | 0.2457 | −0.4110 | 1.8389 | T = 12 | ||
Incentive: rebate | overall | 0.0316 | 0.1991 | 0 | 2 | N = 11,964 |
between | 0.1321 | 0 | 0.5833 | n = 997 | ||
within | 0.1490 | −0.5517 | 1.4482 | T = 12 | ||
Incentive: tax credit | overall | 0.2052 | 0.4818 | 0 | 2 | N = 11,964 |
between | 0.3845 | 0 | 1.1666 | n = 997 | ||
within | 0.2906 | −0.9614 | 1.0385 | T = 12 | ||
Incentive: grant | overall | 0.3438 | 0.6083 | 0 | 2 | N = 11,964 |
between | 0.4920 | 0 | 1.75 | n = 997 | ||
within | 0.3581 | −1.4062 | 1.5104 | T = 12 | ||
Total debt outstanding | overall | 258,157.4 | 909,080.7 | 0 | 17,500,000 | N = 7090 |
between | 701,342.6 | 0 | 13,900,000 | n = 977 | ||
within | 196,368.3 | −4,162,831 | 3,841,913 | T-bar = 7.25691 | ||
High fleet use industry | overall | 12.9384 | 47.3818 | 0 | 1647 | N = 11,964 |
between | 46.5690 | 0 | 1153.083 | n = 997 | ||
within | 8.8519 | −368.145 | 506.8551 | T = 12 | ||
Sustainable power generation facilities | overall | 0.2609 | 0.9489 | 0 | 20 | N = 11,964 |
between | 0.7892 | 0 | 9.4167 | n = 997 | ||
within | 0.5273 | −8.1558 | 10.8442 | T = 12 | ||
Median household income | overall | 43,776.06 | 11,111.72 | 17,843 | 109,926 | N = 11,964 |
between | 10,543.41 | 22,809.5 | 98,969.08 | n = 997 | ||
within | 3522.638 | 24,183.4 | 66,225.31 | T = 12 | ||
Population | overall | 10.6684 | 1.4918 | 6.4409 | 15.4744 | N = 11,964 |
between | 1.4920 | 6.5110 | 15.4662 | n = 997 | ||
within | 0.0371 | 10.2362 | 11.00055 | T = 12 | ||
Average price of primary fuels | overall | 10.6025 | 1.9556 | 7.4 | 17.72 | N = 11,964 |
between | 1.4206 | 8.8891 | 14.09 | n = 997 | ||
within | 1.3447 | 7.6424 | 14.6391 | T = 12 | ||
Carbon dioxide emission | overall | 294.9203 | 189.5735 | 34.12 | 649.59 | N = 11,964 |
between | 188.9022 | 37.9291 | 607.8992 | n = 997 | ||
within | 16.9376 | 237.1311 | 336.6111 | T = 12 | ||
Year | overall | 2009.5 | 3.4521 | 2004 | 2015 | N = 11,964 |
between | 0 | 2009.5 | 2009.5 | n = 997 | ||
within | 3.4521 | 2004 | 2015 | T = 12 |
State | Number of Coalitions | Region | Counties | With Coalitions | No Coalitions |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
California | 14 | Southwest | 58 | 25 | 33 |
Texas | 10 | South Central | 246 | 41 | 205 |
New York | 7 | Northeast | 62 | 40 | 22 |
Connecticut | 6 | Northeast | 8 | 5 | 3 |
Florida | 5 | Southeast | 67 | 24 | 43 |
Colorado | 3 | Northwest | 64 | 63 | 1 |
Illinois | 3 | North Central | 102 | 5 | 97 |
Louisiana | 3 | South Central | 60 | 49 | 11 |
Michigan | 3 | North Central | 83 | 8 | 75 |
North Carolina | 3 | Southeast | 98 | 22 | 76 |
Ohio | 3 | Mid-Atlantic | 85 | 81 | 4 |
Tennessee | 3 | Southeast | 90 | 85 | 5 |
DV: Number of Utility Owned Alt. Fuel Stations | |||
---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | |
Clean Cities coalitions dummy | 2.4816 *** | 1.8446 ** | 1.9157 *** |
(0.7079) | (0.4809) | (0.4128) | |
Incentive: loans | 1.5620 *** | 1.9407 *** | |
(0.1606) | (0.2920) | ||
Incentive: rebate | 0.1850 *** | 0.1660 *** | |
(0.0293) | (0.0295) | ||
Incentive: tax credit | 0.5009 *** | 0.4296 *** | |
(0.1086) | (0.1067) | ||
Incentive: grant | 1.3107 | 1.3646 | |
(0.2467) | (0.2887) | ||
Total debt outstanding | 1.0000 | ||
(0.0000) | |||
High fleet use industry | 1.0001 | ||
(0.0004) | |||
Sustainable power generation facilities | 0.9503 ** | ||
(0.0191) | |||
Median household income | 1.0000 *** | ||
(0.0000) | |||
Population | 6.8543 | ||
(8.9496) | |||
Average price of primary fuels | 0.8996 | ||
(0.0622) | |||
Carbon dioxide emission | 0.9811 ** | ||
(0.0080) | |||
Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Observations | 1296 | 1296 | 1154 |
Number of county | 108 | 108 | 102 |
Pseudo likelihood | −978.4315 | −881.2763 | −799.4 |
Wald Chi test | 214.1387 | 464.9518 | 1341 |
Prob > Chi2 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0 |
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Measurement | |
---|---|
Dependent variable | |
Privately-owned alternative fueling infrastructure | Number of privately-owned alternative fuel stations in the county |
Independent variables | |
Clean Cities | Clean cities operating in each county (yes = 1) |
Incentive system: Laws and incentives | Annual number of incentive systems of loan, rebate, grant and tax credit: State-level incentives that are given to alternative fueling infrastructure |
Control Variables | |
Industry density: regional concentration of industry with high car-fleet usage | Number of enterprises in industries with high volume of fleet usages in one county NAICS 48411: General Freight Trucking, local |
Main energy resource price | The average price of main energy resource at state |
Energy-related carbon dioxide emissions | Energy-related carbon dioxide emissions at state level |
Sustainable electric power generation facilities | Number of hydroelectric, solar, wind, geothermal, biomass electric power generation facilities (NAICS 221111, 221114, 221115, 221116, 221117) at county level |
Total debt outstanding | Amount of total debt outstanding, 1000 USD |
Household income | Median household income at county level |
Population | Population at county level |
N | Mean | SD | Min | Max | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Clean Cities | 11,964 | 0.4433 | 0.4970 | 0 | 1 |
Privately owned stations | 11,964 | 0.9855 | 3.7012 | 0 | 75 |
Incentive: loans | 11,964 | 0.0889 | 0.3001 | 0 | 2 |
Incentive: rebate | 11,964 | 0.0316 | 0.1991 | 0 | 2 |
Incentive: grant | 11,964 | 0.3438 | 0.6083 | 0 | 2 |
Incentive: tax | 11,964 | 0.2052 | 0.4818 | 0 | 2 |
Median household income | 11,964 | 43,776.06 | 11,111.72 | 17,843 | 109,926 |
Population | 11,964 | 10.6684 | 1.4918 | 6.440947 | 15.47445 |
Average price of primary fuels | 11,964 | 10.6025 | 1.9556 | 7.4 | 17.72 |
High fleet use industry | 11,964 | 12.9384 | 47.3818 | 0 | 1647 |
Sustainable power generation facilities | 11,964 | 0.2609 | 0.9489 | 0 | 20 |
Carbon dioxide emission | 11,964 | 294.9203 | 189.5735 | 34.12 | 649.59 |
Total debt outstanding | 7090 | 258,157.4 | 909,080.7 | 0 | 17,500,000 |
Year | 11,964 | 2009.5 | 3.4522 | 2004 | 2015 |
State | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
California | 52 | 55 | 62 | 63 | 82 | 102 | 117 | 263 | 319 | 410 | 478 | 697 |
Colorado | 4 | 5 | 6 | 22 | 36 | 43 | 46 | 52 | 92 | 110 | 137 | 172 |
Connecticut | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 10 | 50 | 77 | 90 | 118 | 131 |
Florida | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 10 | 59 | 133 | 158 | 183 | 249 |
Illinois | 9 | 31 | 47 | 58 | 71 | 81 | 86 | 108 | 196 | 225 | 255 | 292 |
Louisiana | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 33 | 37 | 42 | 46 |
Michigan | 2 | 5 | 20 | 38 | 50 | 69 | 80 | 116 | 146 | 183 | 231 | 276 |
North Carolina | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 9 | 24 | 38 | 121 | 133 | 161 | 178 | 209 |
New York | 2 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 12 | 31 | 94 | 105 | 129 | 166 |
Ohio | 3 | 4 | 12 | 36 | 47 | 50 | 53 | 76 | 144 | 169 | 226 | 272 |
Tennessee | 1 | 1 | 3 | 10 | 14 | 17 | 28 | 77 | 85 | 93 | 103 | 119 |
Texas | 8 | 11 | 18 | 27 | 28 | 32 | 44 | 115 | 155 | 174 | 226 | 302 |
DV: Number of Privately Owned Alt. Fuel Stations | |||
---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | |
Clean Cities coalitions dummy | 1.3566 ** | 1.3186 ** | 1.2847 * |
(0.1970) | (0.1817) | (0.1831) | |
Incentive: loans | 1.0720 | 1.1228 ** | |
(0.0600) | (0.0611) | ||
Incentive: rebate | 0.9328 | 0.8452 | |
(0.1043) | (0.0956) | ||
Incentive: tax credit | 1.0127 | 1.1362 * | |
(0.0677) | (0.0817) | ||
Incentive: grant | 0.8452 *** | 0.7974 *** | |
(0.0497) | (0.0564) | ||
Total debt outstanding | 1.0000 * | ||
(0.0000) | |||
High fleet use industry | 0.9999 | ||
(0.0002) | |||
Sustainable power generation facilities | 1.0111 | ||
(0.0107) | |||
Median household income | 1.0000 *** | ||
(0.0000) | |||
Population | 5.9139 | ||
(6.4451) | |||
Average price of primary fuels | 1.067 ** | ||
(0.0328) | |||
Carbon dioxide emission | 0.9990 | ||
(0.0019) | |||
Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Observations | 5364 | 5364 | 3959 |
Number of county | 447 | 447 | 381 |
Pseudo likelihood | −4455 | −4444 | −3546 |
Wald Chi2 | 1936 | 2539 | 3248 |
Prob > Chi2 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 |
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Lee, H. Private Sector Engagement in the Self-Governance of Urban Sustainable Infrastructure: A Study on Alternative Fueling Infrastructure in the United States. Sustainability 2021, 13, 12435. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212435
Lee H. Private Sector Engagement in the Self-Governance of Urban Sustainable Infrastructure: A Study on Alternative Fueling Infrastructure in the United States. Sustainability. 2021; 13(22):12435. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212435
Chicago/Turabian StyleLee, Heewon. 2021. "Private Sector Engagement in the Self-Governance of Urban Sustainable Infrastructure: A Study on Alternative Fueling Infrastructure in the United States" Sustainability 13, no. 22: 12435. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212435