Spatial Evolution of Urban Expansion in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Coordinated Development Region
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. The Study Area
3.2. The Data Source
3.3. Research Methods
3.3.1. Urban Expansion Index
3.3.2. Spatial Autocorrelation
3.3.3. Classifying Urban Expansion Types
- Step 1.
- The UEA and UER in 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2015 are calculated for each city.
- Step 2.
- All UEA and UER values are standardized using standard deviation standardization.
- Step 3.
- The normalized UEA and UER are divided into four classes according to the quartile. The four classes are Grade 1 (minimum, lower quartile), Grade 2 (lower quartile, median), Grade 3 (median, upper quartile), and Grade 4 (upper quartile, maximum), respectively.
- Step 4.
- A chunked matrix (4 by 4) is created to list the combinations of UEA and UER (Figure 2). The first and second numbers represent the grade of the UEA and UER, respectively. Some combinations are crossed out because they do not exist in the 13 cities.
- Step 5.
- The combination of UEA and UER is divided into four urban expansion types.
3.3.4. Standard Deviation Ellipse
4. Results
4.1. Temporal and Spatial Characteristics of Urban Expansion
4.1.1. The Expanding Characteristics of Cities with Different Administrative Position
4.1.2. Characteristics of Urban Expansion Based on Spatial Autocorrelation
- (1)
- Annual Urban Expansion Area.
- (2)
- Annual Urban Expansion Rate
4.2. Types and Trends of Urban Expansion
4.3. Spatial Coevolution of Urban Land, GDP, and Population
4.3.1. The Difference of the Main Trend Direction of the Spatial Distribution
4.3.2. The Inconsistency Degree of the Spatial Distribution
4.4. The Impact of Urban Expansion on Land Use
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Yang, S.; Wang, M.Y.; Wang, C. Revisiting and rethinking regional urbanization in Changjiang River Delta, China. Chin. Geogr. Sci. 2012, 22, 617–625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shi, L.; Zhang, Z.; Liu, F.; Zhao, X.; Liu, B.; Xu, J.; Hu, S. Spatial expansion remote sensing monitoring of special economic zones from 1973 to 2013. J. Remote Sens. 2015, 19, 1030–1039. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, J. A transitional institution for the emerging land market in urban China. Urban Stud. 2005, 42, 1369–1390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peng, J.; Tian, L.; Liu, Y.; Zhao, M.; Hu, Y.; Wu, J. Ecosystem services response to urbanization in metropolitan areas: Thresholds identification. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 607–608, 706–714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Y.; Yang, Y.; Li, Y.; Li, J. Conversion from rural settlements and arable land under rapid urbanization in Beijing during 1985–2010. J. Rural Stud. 2017, 51, 141–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, B.; Zhu, J. Changes in urban air quality during urbanization in China. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 188, 312–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fan, Y.; Fang, C. A comprehensive insight into water pollution and driving forces in Western China—Case study of Qinghai. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ogle, J.; Delparte, D.; Sanger, H. Quantifying the sustainability of urban growth and form through time: An algorithmic analysis of a city’s development. Appl. Geogr. 2017, 88, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Foley, J.A.; DeFries, R.; Asner, G.P.; Barford, C.; Bonan, G.; Carpenter, S.R.; Chapin, F.S.; Coe, M.T.; Daily, G.C.; Gibbs, H.K.; et al. Global Consequences of Land Use. Science 2005, 309, 570–574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Xie, H.; Zhu, Z.; Wang, B.; Liu, G.; Zhai, Q. Does the Expansion of Urban Construction Land Promote Regional Economic Growth in China? Evidence from 108 Cities in the Yangtze River Economic Belt. Sustainability 2018, 10, 4073. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gu, C.; Wei, Y.D.; Cook, I.G. Planning Beijing: Socialist city, transitional city, and global city. Urban Geogr. 2015, 36, 905–926. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zeng, C.; Zhang, A.; Liu, L.; Liu, Y. Administrative restructuring and land-use intensity—A spatial explicit perspective. Land Use Policy 2017, 67, 190–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, X.; Xing, H.; Hu, R. The development experience and enlightenment of space planning in some European countries. Urban Rural Dev. 2018, 12, 74–77. [Google Scholar]
- Cai, Y.; Gao, Y.; Zhang, J.; He, T. The construction and enlightenment of American space planning system. Planners 2017, 33, 28–34. [Google Scholar]
- Yang, Y.; Liu, Y.; Li, Y.; Du, G. Quantifying spatio-temporal patterns of urban expansion in Beijing during 1985–2013 with rural-urban development transformation. Land Use Policy 2018, 74, 220–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, Y.; Hu, Y.; Yu, J. Analysis of Shanghai Urban Expansion Based on Multi-temporal Remote Sensing Images. In Sustainable Development of Water and Environment; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2019; pp. 37–45. [Google Scholar]
- Xin, X.; Liu, B.; Di, K.; Zhu, Z.; Zhao, Z.; Liu, J.; Yue, Z.; Zhang, G. Monitoring urban expansion using time series of night-time light data: A case study in Wuhan, China. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2017, 38, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qian, Y.; Wu, Z. Study on Urban Expansion Using the Spatial and Temporal Dynamic Changes in the Impervious Surface in Nanjing. Sustainability 2019, 11, 933. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wang, X.; Xiao, F.; Zhang, Y.; Yin, L.; Lesi, M.; Guo, B.; Zhao, Y.; Li, R. Thirty-year expansion of construction land in Xi’an: Spatial pattern and potential driving factors. Geol. J. 2018, 53, 309–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, Y.; Dou, P.; Yan, H.; Zhang, L.; Yang, S. Quantifying the main urban area expansion of Guangzhou using Landsat imagery. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2018, 39, 7693–7717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, W.; Shan, J.; Wang, Z.; Wang, L.; Lu, D.; Jin, Z.; Yu, K. Geospatial Analysis of Urban Expansion Using Remote Sensing Methods and Data: A Case Study of Yangtze River Delta, China. Complexity 2020, 2020, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, L.; Liu, J.; Liu, Z.; Xu, X.; Wang, B. Analysis on the Spatio-Temporal Characteristics of Urban Expansion and the Complex Driving Mechanism: Taking the Pearl River Delta Urban Agglomeration as a Case. Complexity 2020, 2020, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, H.; Zhang, B.; Liu, Y.; Liu, Y.; Xu, S.; Zhao, Y.; Chen, Y.; Hong, S. Urban expansion patterns and their driving forces based on the center of gravity-GTWR model: A case study of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration. J. Geogr. Sci. 2020, 30, 297–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, L.; Ren, C.; Zhang, B.; Wang, Z.; Liu, M. Quantifying Urban Land Sprawl and its Driving Forces in Northeast China from 1990 to 2015. Sustainability 2018, 10, 188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zou, Y.; Peng, H.; Liu, G.; Yang, K.; Xie, Y.; Weng, Q. Monitoring Urban Clusters Expansion in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River, China, Using Time-Series Nighttime Light Images. Remote Sens. 2017, 9, 1007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Feng, Y.; Wang, X.; Du, W.; Liu, J.; Li, Y. Spatiotemporal characteristics and driving forces of urban sprawl in China during 2003–2017. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, J.; Gao, J.; Chen, W. Urban land expansion and the transitional mechanisms in Nanjing, China. Habitat Int. 2016, 53, 274–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Z.; Li, N.; Wang, X.; Liu, F.; Yang, L. A Comparative Study of Urban Expansion in Beijing, Tianjin and Tangshan from the 1970s to 2013. Remote Sens. 2016, 8, 496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hall, P.; Pain, K. The Polycentric Metropolis: Learning from Mega-city Regions in Europe. Int. J. Urban Reg. Res. 2007, 74, 384–385. [Google Scholar]
- Meijers, E.J.; Burger, M.J. Spatial Structure and Productivity in US Metropolitan Areas. Environ. Plan. A Econ. Space 2010, 42, 1383–1402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jiao, L.; Gong, C.; Xu, G.; Dong, T.; Zhang, B.; Li, Z. Urban expansion dynamics and urban forms in three metropolitan areas—Tokyo, New York, and Shanghai. Prog. Geogr. 2019, 38, 675–685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kantakumar, L.N.; Kumar, S.; Schneider, K. Spatiotemporal urban expansion in Pune metropolis, India using remote sensing. Habitat Int. 2016, 51, 11–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shi, G.; Jiang, N.; Li, Y.; He, B. Analysis of the Dynamic Urban Expansion Based on Multi-Sourced Data from 1998 to 2013: A Case Study of Jiangsu Province. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fang, C.; Zhao, S. A comparative study of spatiotemporal patterns of urban expansion in six major cities of the Yangtze River Delta from 1980 to 2015. Ecosyst. Health Sustain. 2018, 4, 95–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Huang, X.; Xia, J.; Xiao, R.; He, T. Urban expansion patterns of 291 Chinese cities, 1990–2015. Int. J. Digit. Earth 2017, 12, 62–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, X.; Min, X. Quantifying spatiotemporal patterns of urban expansion in China using remote sensing data. Cities 2013, 35, 104–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, Y.; Xu, R. Remote sensing monitoring and driving force analysis of urban expansion in Guangzhou City, China. Habitat Int. 2010, 34, 228–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, J.; Zhang, Q.; Hu, Y. Regional differences of China’s urban expansion from late 20th to early 21st century based on remote sensing information. Chin. Geogr. Sci. 2012, 22, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peng, W.; Wang, G.; Zhou, J.; Zhao, J.; Yang, C. Studies on the temporal and spatial variations of urban expansion in Chengdu, western China, from 1978 to 2010. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2015, 17, 141–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Shi, L.; Taubenböck, H.; Zhang, Z.; Liu, F.; Wurm, M. Urbanization in China from the end of 1980s until 2010—Spatial dynamics and patterns of growth using EO-data. Int. J. Digital Earth 2017, 12, 78–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, J.; Liu, Y.; Yang, Y.; Liu, J. Spatial-temporal characteristics and driving factors of urban construction land in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region during 1985–2015. Geogr. Res. 2018, 37, 37–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Z.; Lu, C. Urban land expansion and its driving factors of mountain cities in China during 1990–2015. J. Geogr. Sci. 2018, 28, 1152–1166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yan, Y.; Ju, H.; Zhang, S.; Jiang, W. Spatiotemporal Patterns and Driving Forces of Urban Expansion in Coastal Areas: A Study on Urban Agglomeration in the Pearl River Delta, China. Sustainability 2019, 12, 191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tang, Z.; Zhang, Z.; Zuo, L.; Wang, X.; Hu, S.; Zhu, Z. Spatial Econometric Analysis of the Relationship between Urban Land and Regional Economic Development in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Coordinated Development Region. Sustainability 2020, 12, 8451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fei, W.; Zhao, S. Urban land expansion in China’s six megacities from 1978 to 2015. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 664, 60–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yu, S.; Zhang, Z.; Liu, F.; Wang, X.; Hu, S. Assessing Interannual Urbanization of China’s Six Megacities Since 2000. Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Li, G.; Li, F. Urban sprawl in China: Differences and socioeconomic drivers. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 673, 367–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Z.; Wang, X.; Zhao, X.; Liu, B.; Yi, L.; Zuo, L.; Wen, Q.; Liu, F.; Xu, J.; Hu, S. A 2010 update of National Land Use/Cover Database of China at 1:100000 scale using medium spatial resolution satellite images. Remote Sens. Environ. 2014, 149, 142–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cli, A.D.; Ord, J.K. Spatial Processes, Models and Applications; Pion: London, UK, 1981. [Google Scholar]
- O’Sullivan, D.; Unwin, D.J. Geographic Information Analysis; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Fu, S.H.; Jha, P.; Gupta, P.C.; Kumar, R.; Dikshit, R.; Sinha, D. Geospatial analysis on the distributions of tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking in India. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e102416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Anselin, L. Local Indicators of Spatial Associationa—LISA. Geogr. Anal. 1995, 27, 93–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pfeiffer, D.U.; Robinson, T.P.; Stevenson, M.; Stevens, K.B.; Clements, A.C.A. Spatial Analysis in Epidemiology; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Anselin, L.; Syabri, I.; Kho, Y. GeoDa: An Introduction to Spatial Data Analysis. Geogr. Anal. 2006, 38, 5–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qiao, K.; Zhu, W.; Hu, D.; Hao, M.; Chen, S.; Cao, S. Examining the distribution and dynamics of impervious surface in different function zones in Beijing. J. Geogr. Sci. 2018, 28, 669–684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhong, Y.; Lin, A.; Zhou, Z. Evolution of the Pattern of Spatial Expansion of Urban Land Use in the Poyang Lake Ecological Economic Zone. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Zhao, L.; Zhao, Z. Dynamics of the economic spatial disparity in coastal area of China. World Reg. Stud. 2014, 23, 45–54. [Google Scholar]
- Wu, W.; Zhao, S.; Zhu, C.; Jiang, J. A comparative study of urban expansion in Beijing, Tianjin and Shijiazhuang over the past three decades. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2015, 134, 93–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gao, X.; Liu, H.; Zhang, Y.; LV, Y.; LIu, X. Spatio-temporal patterns of urban expansion in the Yangtze River Delta Megalopolis from 1990 to 2010. J. Beijing Norm. Univ. (Narural Sci.) 2016, 52, 645–650. [Google Scholar]
- Li, Y.; Jia, L.; Wu, W.; Yan, J.; Liu, Y. Urbanization for rural sustainability—Rethinking China’s urbanization strategy. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 178, 580–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, Q.; He, C.; Gao, B.; Yang, Y.; Liu, Z.; Zhao, Y.; Dou, Y. Detecting the 20 year city-size dynamics in China with a rank clock approach and DMSP/OLS nighttime data. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2015, 137, 138–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meng, D.; LI, X.; Xu, H.; Gong, H. The Spatial Expansion of Construction Land-use in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Metropolis Circle. J. Geo-Inf. Sci. 2013, 15, 289–296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, L.; Hou, X.; YU, L.; Di, X. Dynamics of Urban Expansion in Circum-Bohai Sea Region. Areal Res. Dev. 2012, 31, 74–79. [Google Scholar]
- Gao, B.; Huang, Q.; He, C.; Sun, Z.; Zhang, D. How does sprawl differ across cities in China? A multi-scale investigation using nighttime light and census data. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2016, 148, 89–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, C.; Liu, Z.; Xu, M.; Ma, Q.; Dou, Y. Urban expansion brought stress to food security in China: Evidence from decreased cropland net primary productivity. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 576, 660–670. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xiang, J.; Xie, H. New Town Construction: From London, Paris to Beijing—Similarities and Differences in Multi-Centres Urban Problems. Plan. Stud. Beijing 2005, 3, 12–14. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, Y. The practice and exploration of space expansion mode of big cities abroad. J. Party Univ. Shijiazhuang City Comm. CPC 2015, 17, 18–22. [Google Scholar]
- Wang, T.; Kazak, J.; Han, Q.; de Vries, B. A framework for path-dependent industrial land transition analysis using vector data. Eur. Plan. Stud. 2019, 27, 1391–1412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lehigh, G.R.; Wells, E.C.; Diaz, D. Evidence-Informed strategies for promoting equitability in brownfields redevelopment. J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 261, 110150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
City Level | 2000–2005 | 2005–2010 | 2010–2015 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UEA | UER | UEA | UER | UEA | UER | |
Counties | 35.36 | 5.00 | 34.11 | 3.86 | 68.76 | 6.52 |
County-level cities | 16.08 | 4.85 | 12.03 | 2.92 | 27.73 | 5.87 |
Prefecture-level cities | 37.52 | 4.06 | 29.33 | 2.64 | 53.46 | 4.25 |
Megacities | 110.86 | 6.88 | 116.61 | 5.39 | 109.20 | 3.97 |
BTH | 199.82 | 5.59 | 192.07 | 4.20 | 259.15 | 4.68 |
Statistic | 2000–2005 | 2005–2010 | 2010–2015 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UEA | UER | UEA | UER | UEA | UER | |
Average | 0.99 | 5.74 | 0.95 | 3.92 | 1.28 | 6.10 |
Median | 0.30 | 3.03 | 0.33 | 2.39 | 0.62 | 4.28 |
Skewness coefficient | 5.31 | 2.84 | 9.02 | 3.76 | 3.55 | 2.93 |
Kurtosis coefficient | 34.70 | 10.74 | 98.90 | 24.09 | 16.24 | 14.89 |
Statistic | 2000–2005 | 2005–2010 | 2010–2015 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UEA | UER | UEA | UER | UEA | UER | |
Global Moran’s I | 0.3199 | 0.1945 | 0.2674 | 0.2245 | 0.3141 | 0.1217 |
Z-score | 7.5965 | 4.6294 | 8.4125 | 5.5967 | 7.1094 | 2.8465 |
City | Type A | Type B | Type C | Type D |
---|---|---|---|---|
Baoding | 181.56 | 38.08 | ||
Beijing | 585.80 | 193.51 | ||
Cangzhou | 69.28 | 45.44 | ||
Chengde | 14.95 | 24.56 | ||
Handan | 70.89 | 46.00 | 44.12 | |
Hengshui | 48.62 | 44.47 | ||
Langfang | 151.03 | 39.04 | ||
Qinhuangdao | 47.15 | 53.14 | ||
Shijiazhuang | 146.12 | 69.15 | ||
Tangshan | 149.34 | 55.80 | ||
Tianjin | 675.93 | 228.09 | ||
Xingtai | 138.54 | 29.39 | ||
Zhangjiakou | 65.20 | |||
Total | 2264.26 | 318.44 | 293.42 | 379.09 |
City | 2000 | 2005 | 2010 | 2015 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UG | UP | UG | UP | UG | UP | UG | UP | |
Baoding | 1.58 | 7.14 | 2.97 | 7.52 | 2.17 | 6.33 | 0.54 | 4.49 |
Beijing | 5.67 | 6.34 | 8.21 | 11.92 | 11.78 | 13.74 | 12.94 | 14.35 |
Cangzhou | 15.7 | 15.7 | 3.71 | 13.78 | 7.82 | 13.67 | 4.94 | 9.62 |
Chengde | 0.92 | 8.93 | 0.56 | 16.95 | 1.56 | 17.06 | 1.15 | 14.66 |
Handan | 0.67 | 6.41 | 1.35 | 5.73 | 0.14 | 6.5 | 4.34 | 2.2 |
Hengshui | 0.02 | 1.78 | 2.73 | 3.24 | 4.99 | 2.94 | 3.68 | 1.66 |
Langfang | 1.8 | 5.45 | 3.79 | 7.19 | 3.22 | 7.62 | 4.42 | 9.77 |
Qinhuangdao | 21.79 | 64.23 | 43.14 | 67.25 | 52.31 | 63.26 | 35.78 | 58.06 |
Shijiazhuang | 1.28 | 4.11 | 1.58 | 4.04 | 1.25 | 4.94 | 1.35 | 4.59 |
Tangshan | 3.74 | 7.27 | 1.22 | 7.08 | 4.26 | 9.74 | 3.46 | 7.57 |
Tianjin | 22.39 | 20.45 | 34.03 | 35.55 | 2.06 | 49.4 | 4.6 | 52.58 |
Xingtai | 21.97 | 19.27 | 5.86 | 13 | 6.44 | 13.96 | 0.07 | 20.27 |
Zhangjiakou | 0.81 | 2.82 | 0.24 | 0.36 | 1.91 | 1.15 | 2.93 | 0.81 |
City | 2000 | 2005 | 2010 | 2015 | Row Average | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SDUG | SDUP | SDUG | SDUP | SDUG | SDUP | SDUG | SDUP | SDUG | SDUP | |
Baoding | 0.0602 | 0.2235 | 0.1348 | 0.2700 | 0.0707 | 0.2416 | 0.1037 | 0.2187 | 0.0923 | 0.2385 |
Beijing | 0.3612 | 0.3195 | 0.3839 | 0.2087 | 0.4277 | 0.1752 | 0.4657 | 0.1405 | 0.4096 | 0.2110 |
Cangzhou | 0.1770 | 0.2227 | 0.2091 | 0.1849 | 0.1938 | 0.1544 | 0.1314 | 0.1167 | 0.1778 | 0.1697 |
Chengde | 0.1319 | 0.2336 | 0.1174 | 0.2210 | 0.2006 | 0.2335 | 0.1137 | 0.2343 | 0.1409 | 0.2306 |
Handan | 0.1826 | 0.3298 | 0.2063 | 0.2683 | 0.2476 | 0.2451 | 0.2470 | 0.1447 | 0.2209 | 0.2470 |
Hengshui | 0.1179 | 0.1810 | 0.1387 | 0.2019 | 0.1207 | 0.1901 | 0.1137 | 0.1613 | 0.1228 | 0.1836 |
Langfang | 0.3571 | 0.3571 | 0.3903 | 0.5612 | 0.3245 | 0.5652 | 0.2744 | 0.5073 | 0.3366 | 0.4977 |
Qinhuangdao | 0.7077 | 0.7774 | 0.7440 | 0.7944 | 0.7049 | 0.7683 | 0.6283 | 0.7302 | 0.6962 | 0.7676 |
Shijiazhuang | 0.2730 | 0.2898 | 0.2413 | 0.2359 | 0.1600 | 0.2179 | 0.1443 | 0.2020 | 0.2046 | 0.2364 |
Tangshan | 0.4335 | 0.3899 | 0.4413 | 0.3496 | 0.4453 | 0.3484 | 0.3986 | 0.3407 | 0.4297 | 0.3571 |
Tianjin | 0.4259 | 0.4203 | 0.3894 | 0.4493 | 0.1752 | 0.5383 | 0.2152 | 0.5200 | 0.3014 | 0.4820 |
Xingtai | 0.3978 | 0.3719 | 0.2447 | 0.2835 | 0.2044 | 0.2126 | 0.1594 | 0.1753 | 0.2516 | 0.2608 |
Zhangjiakou | 0.2611 | 0.3572 | 0.1636 | 0.2472 | 0.1191 | 0.2586 | 0.1371 | 0.2110 | 0.1702 | 0.2685 |
Co_average | 0.2990 | 0.3441 | 0.2927 | 0.3289 | 0.2611 | 0.3192 | 0.2410 | 0.2848 | - |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Tang, Z.; Zhang, Z.; Zuo, L.; Wang, X.; Zhao, X.; Liu, F.; Hu, S.; Yi, L.; Xu, J. Spatial Evolution of Urban Expansion in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Coordinated Development Region. Sustainability 2021, 13, 1579. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031579
Tang Z, Zhang Z, Zuo L, Wang X, Zhao X, Liu F, Hu S, Yi L, Xu J. Spatial Evolution of Urban Expansion in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Coordinated Development Region. Sustainability. 2021; 13(3):1579. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031579
Chicago/Turabian StyleTang, Zhanzhong, Zengxiang Zhang, Lijun Zuo, Xiao Wang, Xiaoli Zhao, Fang Liu, Shunguang Hu, Ling Yi, and Jinyong Xu. 2021. "Spatial Evolution of Urban Expansion in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Coordinated Development Region" Sustainability 13, no. 3: 1579. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031579