Green Roofs and Walls Design Intended to Mitigate Climate Change in Urban Areas across All Continents
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Green Roofs and Walls Effects
2.1. GRW in Urban Heat Island (UHI) Decrease
2.2. Greenhouse Effect Reduction
2.3. Pollutant Fixation
2.4. Stormwater Runoff Management
2.5. Noise Attenuation
2.6. Biodiversity Increase
3. Mitigation Values
3.1. Exposure Mitigation Values
3.2. Design Mitigation Values
3.3. Data Analysis
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Comparison of Greening Exposure by Continent
4.2. Greening Design Comparison
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Exposure | Design |
---|---|
Urban heat island decrease | Urban heat island decrease |
Building owner [32] | Abundance of vegetation [12,13,25,39] |
Canyon geometries [20] | Geometry of vegetation [15] |
City density [15,20,25,27] | Leaf area index [14,15] |
Cooling/heating needs [29] | Plant height [25,39] |
Longitude of city [1,25] | Thickness of the layers of the planted part [11,15,25] |
Relative humidity [20,26] | Type of substrate, composition, and moisture content [14,15] |
Solar radiation [11,12] | Type of vegetation [8,15,16,35] |
Temperature [60] | Wall/roof covered [20] |
Wind speed [11,25] | |
Greenhouse effect reduction | Greenhouse effect reduction |
Building insulation [7,11,33] | Albedo [25,39] |
Insulation regulations [7] | Light colour [15,39] |
Inclination [20] | Extension greened [35] |
Orientation [20] | Evapotranspiration [41] |
Shading patterns [20] | Soil moisture [41,42] |
Solar/ultraviolet radiation [41] | Soil relative density [38] |
Year of construction [7] | Growing media depth [7,30,40] |
Type of vegetation [35,40] | |
Pollutants fixation | Pollutants fixation |
Rain events patterns [44] | Intensive/extensive of greening system [45] |
Volume of rain [45] | Nature of substrates [44] |
Type of vegetation [43] | |
Runoff water management | Runoff water management |
Antecedent dry weather period [9] | Growing media composition [49] |
Climatic exposure [9,45] | Intensive/extensive of greening system [8,17,47,52] |
Evapotranspiration [9] | Media depth [10,48] |
Rainfall characteristics [9] | Slope [45] |
Rainfall intensity [45,50] | Type of vegetation [5,16,53] |
Noise attenuation | Noise attenuation |
Building height [58] | Roof shape [56,57] |
Canyon geometries [57] | Type of vegetation [58] |
Materials adjacent street [56] | Biodiversity enhancement |
Noise frequencies [58] | Intensive/extensive of greening system [2] |
Openness [58] | Native flora and fauna species [2] |
Source–receiver distance [58] |
Variable | Cases | Frequency (%) | Variable | Cases | Freq. (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Continent | America | 82.32 | Intensity | Extensive | 65.08 |
Europe | 12.42 | Intensive | 22.83 | ||
Asia | 4.11 | Living walls | 6.04 | ||
Oceania | 0.98 | Semi-intensive | 5.22 | ||
Africa | 0.17 | Inter. living wall | 0.83 | ||
Year greening | 2000–2009 | 62.90 | Location | Street | 50.23 |
2010–2018 | 32.57 | Avenue | 24.24 | ||
1914–1999 | 4.53 | Park | 14.99 | ||
Building owner | Private | 69.70 | Boulevard | 7.09 | |
Public | 30.30 | Campus | 3.45 | ||
Variable | [Min; Max] | Mean ± SD | Köppen–Geiger | Climate group C (Cfa; Cfb) | 67.17 (44.82; 11.35) |
Slope (%) | [0.00; 100.00] | 10.85 ± 25.95 | classification | Climate group D | 25.65 |
Population | [299; 24,150,000] | 1,474,597 ± 2,764,572.42 | Climate group A | 3.82 | |
Extension (m2) | [2.00; 115,000] | 2095.58 ± 7337.29 | Climate group B | 3.36 |
Exposure | Design | ||
---|---|---|---|
Indicators | Marks and Cases | Indicators | Marks and Cases |
Location [Sampling] | 10.0: Green roof in a boulevard 9.0: Green wall in a boulevard 8.0: Green roof in an avenue 7.0: Green wall in an avenue 6.0: Green roof in a park 5.0: Green wall in a park 4.0: Green roof in a campus 3.0: Green wall in a campus 2.0: Green roof in a street 1.0: Green wall in a street | Intensive/extensive thermal transmittance [40] | 10: Semi-intensive/living wall 7.1: Intensive 3.8: Extensive 0.0: Living wall interior |
Population [Sampling] | 10.0: 21.8–24.2 million inhabitants 9.0: 19.4–21.7 million inhabitants 8.0: 17.0–19.3 million inhabitants 7.0: 14.5–16.9 million inhabitants 6.0: 12.1–14.4 million inhabitants 5.0: 9.7–12.0 million inhabitants 4.0: 7.3–9.6 million inhabitants 3.0: 4.9–7.2 million inhabitants 2.0: 2.5–4.8 million inhabitants 1.0: Up to 2.4 million inhabitants | Intensive/extensive runoff water Management [52] | 10: Intensive 8.3: Semi-intensive 6.0: Extensive 3.0: Living wall 0.0: Living wall interior |
Climatic exposure UHI [6] | 3.1: Köppen–Geiger climate group A 7.2: Köppen–Geiger climate group B 6.0: Köppen–Geiger climate group C 4.8: Köppen–Geiger climate group D | Greened extension [Sampling] | 10.0: 103,501–115,003 square metres 9.0: 92,001–103,500 square metres 8.0: 80,501–92,000 square metres 7.0: 69,001–80,500 square metres 6.0: 57,501–69,000 square metres 5.0: 46,001–57,500 square metres 4.0: 34,501–46,000 square metres 3.0: 23,001–34,500 square metres 2.0: 11,501–23,000 square metre s 1.0: Up to 11,500 square metres |
Climatic exposure stormwater runoff management [9] | 7.3: Köppen–Geiger climate group A 7.8: Köppen–Geiger climate group B 6.3: Köppen–Geiger climate group C 9.5: Köppen–Geiger climate group Cfa 6.3: Köppen–Geiger climate group Cfb 5.7: Köppen–Geiger climate group D | Slope runoff water management [Sampling] | 10.0: 0.1–1% slope 9.0: 1–10% slope 8.0: 11–20% slope 7.0: 21–30% slope 6.0: 31–40% slope 5.0: 41–50% slope 4.0: 51–60% slope 3.0: 61–70% slope 2.0: 71–80% slope 1.0: 81–90% slope 0.0: 91–100% slope |
Year and owner [Sampling] | 10.0: After 2010 public building 8.0: After 2010 private building 6.0: 2009–2000 public buildings 4.0: 2009–2000 private buildings 2.0: Before 2000 |
Greening | Africa | America | Asia | Europe | Oceania | F | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exposure indicators | |||||||
Location | 5.00 ± 1.41 abc | 5.69 ± 2.06 a | 5.69 ± 2.03 a | 5.36 ± 2.00 b | 4.44 ± 1.62 c | 2.703 | 0.029 |
Population | 1.00 ± 0.00 a | 1.32 ± 0.81 a | 3.14 ± 2.40 b | 1.39 ± 0.94 a | 1.44 ± 0.78 a | 62.601 | 0.000 |
Climatic exposure UHI | 6.00 ± 0.00 ac | 5.63 ± 0.72 a | 4.52 ± 1.58 b | 5.91 ± 0.36 c | 5.68 ± 0.94 ac | 47.675 | 0.000 |
Climatic exposure stormwater runoff management | 9.50 ± 0.00 a | 7.84 ± 1.76 a | 7.70 ± 1.45 a | 6.49 ± 0.86 b | 7.30 ± 1.44 b | 31.383 | 0.000 |
Year-owner | 7.00 ± 1.41 abcd | 5.85 ± 2.23 a | 6.76 ± 2.54 b | 4.85 ± 2.32 c | 8.00 ± 1.94 d | 17.174 | 0.000 |
Design indicators | |||||||
Intensive/extensive thermal transmittance | 6.00 ± 0.00 abc | 6.71 ± 1.95 a | 7.33 ± 3.02 b | 6.70 ± 2.90 a | 4.42 ± 2.64 c | 6.641 | 0.000 |
Intensive/extensive runoff water management | 3.80 ± 0.00 a | 5.10 ± 2.17 a | 6.99 ± 2.32 b | 5.32 ± 2.58 a | 7.24 ± 3.17 b | 16.014 | 0.000 |
Greened extension | 1.00 ± 0.00 abc | 1.04 ± 0.32 a | 1.65 ± 1.75 b | 1.17 ± 0.83 c | 1.09 ± 0.61 b | 23.587 | 0.000 |
Slope runoff water management | 9.00 ± 0.00 abc | 8.42 ± 2.29 a | 7.08 ± 4.07 b | 7.93 ± 2.87 c | 4.67 ± 4.39 d | 15.699 | 0.000 |
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Barriuso, F.; Urbano, B. Green Roofs and Walls Design Intended to Mitigate Climate Change in Urban Areas across All Continents. Sustainability 2021, 13, 2245. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13042245
Barriuso F, Urbano B. Green Roofs and Walls Design Intended to Mitigate Climate Change in Urban Areas across All Continents. Sustainability. 2021; 13(4):2245. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13042245
Chicago/Turabian StyleBarriuso, Fernando, and Beatriz Urbano. 2021. "Green Roofs and Walls Design Intended to Mitigate Climate Change in Urban Areas across All Continents" Sustainability 13, no. 4: 2245. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13042245