Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of Green Infrastructure Practices for Urban Watersheds Using an Engineering–Environmental–Economic (3E) Model
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Framework for Determining the BAGI Practices
2.3. Performance Evaluation of the Green Infrastructure Practices
2.4. Establishment of the 3E Triangle Model
2.5. Cost–Benefit Analysis of the Implementation of Green Infrastructure: A Case Study of the Pearl River Delta
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Engineering Performance of the Selected Available Green Infrastructure Practices
3.2. Life Cycle Assessment of the Selected Available Green Infrastructure Practices
3.3. Evaluation of the Selected Best Available Green Infrastructure Practices of the 3E Model
3.4. Preliminary Cost–Benefit Results of Implementation of Green Infrastructure in the Pearl River Delta
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Aspects | Key Performance Indicators | Units | Wi | Remarks | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Engineering performance (EP) | EP1 | Peak flow reduction | % | 0.40 | Related to technological risk |
EP2 | Peak flow delay | hours | 0.20 | Related to commercialization risk | |
EP3 | TSSs reduction | % | 0.10 | Related to technological risk | |
EP4 | TN reduction | % | 0.10 | Related to technological risk | |
EP5 | TP reduction | % | 0.10 | Related to technological risk | |
EP6 | Lead reduction | % | 0.10 | Related to technological risk | |
Life cycle environmental impact (LCEI) | LCEI1 | Global warming potential | kg CO2-Eq | 0.05 | Related to ecosystem risk |
LCEI2 | Freshwater ecotoxicity | kg 1,4-DCB | 0.10 | Related to ecosystem risk | |
LCEI3 | Freshwater eutrophication | kg P-Eq | 0.20 | Related to ecosystem risk | |
LCEI4 | Human toxicity | kg 1,4-DCB | 0.35 | Related to human health risk | |
LCEI5 | Marine ecotoxicity | kg 1,4-DCB | 0.10 | Related to ecosystem risk | |
LCEI6 | Marine eutrophication | kg N-Eq | 0.20 | Related to ecosystem risk | |
Economic cost (EC) | EC1 | Construction cost | USD/m2 | 0.70 | Related to economic risk |
EC2 | Operation and maintenance cost | USD/m2 | 0.30 | Related to regulation risk |
Pollutant | Mechanism | Description | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Solid | Sedimentation and filtration | GIs can provide extended hydraulic retention time, facilitating the sedimentation process. | - |
Nitrogen | Volatilization | [47] | |
Nitrification | [48] | ||
Denitrification | [49] | ||
Phosphorous | Adsorption and Reduction | The process is controlled by pH, redox potential, and mineral compositions. | [50] |
Metals | Adsorption and cation exchange | Interaction with the soil matrix. | - |
Microbial degradation | Metal could be oxidized in aerobic zones and/or be transformed to sulfides in anaerobic zones, both leading to facilitated precipitation. | [51] | |
Plant uptake | Soluble metals could be absorbed by plants and most of them accumulate in the roots. | [49] |
Green Infrastructure Practices | Construction | References | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Materials | Processing | |||
1 | Green roof | Polyethylene: 0.46 kg/m2 Polypropylene: 14.25 kg/m2 PVC: 9.50 kg/m2 | Material production | [52] |
2 | Rain garden | Sand: 58.58 kg/m2 Clay: 37.59 kg/m2 Gravel: 185.53 kg/m2 | Material production Excavation: 0.26 m3 | [53] |
3 | Swale | Clay: 1079.18 kg/m2 | Material production Excavation: 0.61 m3 | |
4 | Pervious surface | Cement: 281.91 kg/m2 Gravel: 281.91 kg/m2 | Material production Excavation: 0.15 m3 | |
5 | Detention basin | HDPE: 0.46 kg/m2 Peat: 75.29 kg/m2 Sand: 976.58 kg/m2 PVC: 0.30 kg/m2 | Material production Excavation: 1.22 m3 | |
6 | Constructed wetland | Steel: 2.94 kg/m2 PVC: 2.11 kg/m2 Gravel: 719 kg/m2 | Material production Excavation: 0.35 m3 | [54] |
GI Instrument | Green Roof | Rain Garden | Swale | Pervious Surface | Detention Basin | Wetland | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Engineering Performance | Peak Flow Reduction (%) | 64.5 ± 21.4 [56,57,58] | 52.5 ± 14.8 [59,60] | 60.5 [61,62] | 86 [63] | 96.5 [64] | >80 [65] |
Peak Flow Delay (h) | 0.5 [56,66] | 1.5–3.0 [59,60] | 0.7 [67] | 1 [63,68] | 9.8 [69] | 48–72 [65,70] | |
TSS Removal (%) | −71.4 | 75.1 | 62.8 | 23.2 | 64.9 | 51.2 | |
TN Removal (%) | −5529.9 | 15.4 | −185.7 | −10.3 | 11.0 | 0.7 | |
TP Removal (%) | −1143.7 | −46.7 | 31.2 | −55.1 | 21.1 | 26.3 | |
Lead Removal (%) | 0.0 | 58.3 | 50.0 | 10.0 | 37.5 | 50.0 | |
Environmental Impact | GWP | 96.9 | 8.38 × 10−2 | 2.35 | 38.7 | 31.5 | 9.19 × 10−1 |
FEC | 1.27 × 10−1 | 6.06 × 10−6 | 6.97 × 10−5 | 18.4 | 1.92 × 10−3 | 2.46 × 10−4 | |
FEU | 3.72 × 10−3 | 6.80 × 10−9 | 1.95 × 10−7 | 4.34 × 10−1 | 9.85 × 10−5 | 4.64 × 10−8 | |
HT | 88.6 | 2.70 × 10−3 | 7.62 × 10−2 | 2.71 × 104 | 28.0 | 4.48 × 10−2 | |
MEC | 92.3 | 5.37 × 10−3 | 1.52 × 10−1 | 1.86 × 104 | 29.2 | 5.23 × 10−1 | |
MEU | 9.26 × 10−2 | 4.50 × 10−4 | 1.29 × 10−2 | 1.57 | 2.89 × 10−3 | 1.95 × 10−4 | |
Economic Cost | Capital Cost (USD/m2) | 106 | 120 | 1.00 | 60.00 | 1.01 | 1.20 |
Maintenance Cost (USD/m2) | 3.14 | 7.20 | 0.31 | 0.33 | 0.21 | 8.38 |
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Xing, Y.-J.; Chen, T.-L.; Gao, M.-Y.; Pei, S.-L.; Pan, W.-B.; Chiang, P.-C. Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of Green Infrastructure Practices for Urban Watersheds Using an Engineering–Environmental–Economic (3E) Model. Sustainability 2021, 13, 4678. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13094678
Xing Y-J, Chen T-L, Gao M-Y, Pei S-L, Pan W-B, Chiang P-C. Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of Green Infrastructure Practices for Urban Watersheds Using an Engineering–Environmental–Economic (3E) Model. Sustainability. 2021; 13(9):4678. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13094678
Chicago/Turabian StyleXing, Yi-Jia, Tse-Lun Chen, Meng-Yao Gao, Si-Lu Pei, Wei-Bin Pan, and Pen-Chi Chiang. 2021. "Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of Green Infrastructure Practices for Urban Watersheds Using an Engineering–Environmental–Economic (3E) Model" Sustainability 13, no. 9: 4678. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13094678