The Impact of Attracting a Mega-Sport Facility on the Development of a Small Town: A Case Study on Taekwondowon in Muju, South Korea

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to investigate the impact of attracting a mega-sport facility on the development of a small town. As a case study, we took a close look at the changes occurring since Muju County attracted Taekwondowon in 2014 and its significance to urban development and city branding. Data were collected by individual interviews with five research participants engaged in the business and the regional development of Taekwondowon and the Muju County Office (MCO). As a result, the study produced the following outcomes: First, MCO has established an administrative and legal system to actively utilize Taekwondowon and spur urban development. Second, the regional ripple effects include the local economic consumption by the Taekwondo Promotion Foundation (TPF), purchasing local agricultural products by the TPF, and increasing income for local lodging and catering businesses generated by taekwondo events held at Taekwondowon. Third, and most importantly, Muju has been pursuing a transformation into a sustainable international tourism city by becoming the mecca for taekwondo. To achieve this goal, Taekwondowon has been taking some existing functions of Kukkiwon, and the MCO constructed the Taekwon Village, Taekwon Park, and Taekwon V Land throughout Muju. In addition, the social overhead capital necessary for a tourist destination, such as road expansion and a new express bus system between the international airport and Muju, has been reinforced. Furthermore, various tourism products using Taekwondowon have been provided to continue its city branding. In summary, it was found that Taekwondowon has played a pivotal role in Muju’s journey toward achieving sustainable development as the mecca for taekwondo.

1. Introduction

Globalization, the commercialization of sports, and the media’s high interest in sports have increased the political, economic, and socio-cultural importance of sports. Consequently, cities have begun to recognize sports as an effective tool for urban development [1]. The goal of urban development through sports should be implemented through city policy goals, internal and external city marketing, city products, and city branding. According to Berg et al. (2002), city marketing is an aspect of city management facilitating its development, and in order to successfully market the city, it must be attractive to residents, businesses, investors, and visitors [2]. Like other cultural forms and art, sports have played an integral role in making cities attractive and improved their image by acting as a vital force in areas affected by issues such as crime and unemployment. Accordingly, sports have been used as an economic growth engine for active city management to brand the city with a new, differentiated image [2,3,4,5].

While sports are being used as a driving force for urban regeneration and development, precedent research revealed three ripple effects as the reasons for hosting international mega-sporting events by cities worldwide: revitalizing the local economy, reinforcing local infrastructure, and improving the image of the city. Lee and Taylor (2005), Gratton et al. (2006), and Fourie and Santana-Gallego (2011) argued that hosting international mega-sporting events contributes to the revitalization of the city’s economy by generating increased income, attracting investment, expanding employment, and increasing tourism revenue [6,7,8]. Crompton (2001) also described the role and function of sporting events in marketing the city by emphasizing local economic development through the consumption by visitors to the city [9]. Regarding the expansion of local infrastructure, Andranovich et al. (2001) and Malfas et al. (2004) argued that there had been effects of expanding urban infrastructure in a short period through large-scale input of financial resources, not only for the construction of sports facilities but also for the surrounding landscape creation project and the reorganization of roads and transportation networks [10,11]. Saxena (2016) also suggested the benefits of building sports infrastructure, such as increased trade, increased employment, the expansion of transportation facilities, and the development of the tourism industry, as direct effects of hosting international mega-sporting events [12]. On the other hand, Getz (1997) highlighted the city publicity effect from hosting international mega-sporting events, which improves the host city’s and host country’s image [13]. Saxena (2016) also argued that holding international mega-sporting events induces non-quantifiable effects, such as recognition as an international city and securing the city’s positive reputation [12]. Thus, in many cases, existing research concluded that if a city hosts international mega-sporting events (e.g., the Olympic Games), it can generate ripple effects, such as new sports facilities and social infrastructure, improve the city’s recognition and reputation in the international community, develop the tourism industry, improve public welfare, facilitate job creation, and expand internal and external investment.

Meanwhile, unlike the research supporting the positive effects of hosting international mega-sporting events, an increasing volume of literature advances a critical viewpoint on the urban reconstruction and marketing effects induced by sporting events [14]. These studies posit that the economic ripple effects of sporting events are overestimated. For example, Baade and Matheson (2004) raised questions about the economic impacts of the 1994 World Cup in the United States, highlighting that host cities experienced cumulative losses of 5.5 to 9.3 billion USD as opposed to ex ante estimates of a 4 billion USD gain touted by event boosters. [15]. Chung (2008) also argued that after the 2004 Athens Olympics, the Greek economy experienced a decrease in the GDP, consumption, and export growth rates. Instead, the high cost of hosting the Olympics acted as a catalyst for driving the national economy into crisis [16]. Furthermore, in South Korea, after achieving national brand promotion and economic ripple effects from the 1986 Seoul Asian Games and the 1988 Seoul Olympics, several local governments actively hosted international sporting events, such as the 2002 Korea–Japan World Cup, the 2002 Busan Asian Games, the 2003 Daegu Universiade, IAAF World Championships Daegu 2011, the 2014 Incheon Asian Games, and the 2015 Gwangju Universiade. However, it was found that those host cities overspent local and national resources on attracting, constructing, and operating the events. Specifically, Incheon and Gwangju suffered considerable sequelae after the games due to spending beyond the limits of local resources [17].

While there is rising skepticism about the ripple effects of a one-time international sporting event, interest in attracting sports facilities that can have a sustainable ripple effect is shifting. In South Korea, since the emergence of the construction of professional sports stadiums for urban revitalization in 1982, each local government built stadiums to provide opportunities for watching sports and promoting consumption activities, thereby revitalizing local commercial areas around the stadiums and achieving a virtuous cycle of the urban economy [18,19]. More recently, the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs of the Republic of Korea enacted the “Law on the Creation and Management of Marina Ports” in 2009 and announced a plan to develop 43 marina ports nationwide by 2019. In this regard, Kang and Kim (2013) reported that the development of marinas as marine leisure sports facilities generated several ripple effects, such as the formation of marina infrastructure, the construction of a fishing village tourism complex and marine leisure industrial complex, the improvement of public transportation, the expansion of recreational facilities, the improvement of the local image, the increase of mass media exposure, marine academy operation, the increase in consumption due to the inflow of tourists in the yacht/boat industry, and the hosting of the 2011 International Boat Show and World Yacht Competition [20].

As such, instead of hosting international mega-sporting events to realize short-term ripple effects that may pose an economic burden to the local government, there has been growing interest in the sustainable ripple effects derived from attracting and building large-scale sports facilities. In addition, in some cases, local governments became interested in attracting large-scale sports facilities as a strategic means for city branding.

This study aims to explore the impact and significance of Taekwondowon—a large-scale sports facility—to Muju, South Korea, during the seven years after successfully attracting the facility. When the Korean government planned to establish the Taekwondo Promotion Foundation (hereafter TPF), which oversees the development of taekwondo, and build Taekwondowon with that facility, the Muju County Office (hereafter MCO) considered attracting the facility a golden opportunity for regional development, actively pursued it, and succeeded. In particular, Muju has continued regional development after making a bold plan to be the mecca for taekwondo by combining the symbolism of Taekwondowon with Muju’s historical symbol: a region of martial arts training. In this study, Muju and Taekwondowon were selected as research subjects for conducting a case study to explore the impact and the meaning behind the attraction of large-scale sports facilities on regional development. The results of this study are expected to provide benchmarking data to numerous city administrations pursuing sustainable regional development from attracting large-scale sports facilities instead of one-off international mega-sporting events.

2. Method

2.1. Case Study: Taekwondowon in Muju, South Korea

Muju is a small county with an area of 631.7 km² and a population of approximately 23,000. In terms of administrative district, it belongs to Jeollabuk Province, and its Korean name is Muju-gun (county). Muju seeks to preserve the beautiful environment by setting green growth, creating an eco-environmental city, constructing eco-friendly infrastructure as city goals, and continuing mid or long-term and feasible environmental policies. Because of the regional characteristics of rural areas, Muju has been excluded from national industrialization until now. Thus, its industrial structure is 52% dependent on the primary industry [21]. Instead, the natural environment is better preserved than other cities, making it highly dependent on tourism, which highlights the natural environment. Taekwondowon was attracted to enhance the economic effects within the tourism industry. After completing the attraction, Muju actively promoted tourism urbanization using Taekwondowon.

Taekwondowon is a large-scale taekwondo training and tourism facility directly operated and managed by the TPF (see Figure 1). In 2009, the groundbreaking ceremony was held in Seolcheon-myeon, Muju, with a total project cost of 28.6 million USD. Taekwondowon hosted 5 domestic or international events in 2014, 10 in 2015, 11 in 2016, 31 in 2017 (including the 2017 WTF World Taekwondo Championships), 21 in 2018, and 17 in 2019. The MCO and TPF have held mid-to-large taekwondo competitions annually since 2014, and the ripple effects continue.

2.2. Research Participants

This study used the criterion sampling method suggested by Goetz and LeCompte (1984) to select suitable research participants for the research [22]. To this end, a meeting of experts comprising three Ph.D. degree holders in sports studies was held, and the following criteria were selected: (1) work experience at the TPF or MCO, (2) Taekwondowon-related work experience, (3) a comprehensive understanding of the impact of Taekwondowon on Muju, and (4) a willingness to participate in the current study. Participants of the research who satisfied the selected criteria were former or current TPF or MCO officials with practical experience attracting Taekwondowon and changes in Muju after attracting it. They were expected to describe the changes in the county based on their comprehensive understanding of the research topic. As shown in

Table 1. Characteristics of the research participants.

Name	Affiliation	Related Career (y)	Age (Gender)	Note
Respondent 1	TPF	8	46 (M)	Working since 2013
Respondent 2	TPF	7	46 (M)	Working since 2014
Respondent 3	MCO	3	58 (M)	Member, Bidding Committee for Taekwondowon Worked in MCO for 33 years
Respondent 4	MCO	3	42 (M)	Head, Taekwondo Team, MCO
Respondent 5	Muju Public Sports Club	10	63 (F)	Member, Bidding Committee for Taekwondowon Former head, Culture and Tourism, MCO (18 y in MCO) Former chief, Seolcheon-myeon

, the average age of the research participants is 51, with an average of 6.2 years of related work experience. The group comprised four males and one female.

2.3. Development of the Research Tool

A pilot study was conducted to gather knowledge and information about the issues being examined. Before the pilot study, a literature review related to the socio-cultural and economic impacts of sports facilities and events [17,19,20,23,24,25,26] was conducted to develop the draft interview guide. The pilot study was premised on the draft interview guide (see Appendix A), and involved a 60-min interview with an individual possessing a comprehensive understanding and experience in the process toward attracting Taekwondowon and Taekwondowon’s impact on Muju. After developing the interview guide based on the literature review and pilot study, the validity of the guide was verified through a meeting of experts comprising three Ph.D. degree holders specializing in sports studies.

2.4. Data Collection

For data collection, an acquaintance of the researcher introduced one research participant who satisfied the criteria. Researchers visited the research participant’s workplace and conducted an open-ended and semi-structured interview for 120 min, following which four research participants were individually interviewed using the snowball sampling method. You (2004) insisted that “the criterion for determining the number of interview participants can be judged by whether the interview has reached a saturation point where no new knowledge is created” (p. 78). In this study, it was assessed that the collected data were saturated after interviewing the fifth participant [27]. Prior to each interview, the researcher explained the purpose of the study and their rights as research participants. Research participants signed an informed consent form. All interviews were recorded with participants’ consent, and the data were transcribed for analysis.

2.5. Data Analysis and the Trustworthiness of the Study

Inductive analysis is a process that divides knowledge and perception based on personal experience into several essential categories and inductively discovers meaningful themes in those categories. The analysis in this study was guided by Hatch’s (2002) nine-step inductive analysis procedure [28]. After reading the interview data, the frame of the analysis was established. Afterward, each category was developed based on the semantic relationship. Among them, a representative and important category was selected and symbolized. The selected essential categories were refined, and correlations were found. After re-reading the analysis data, a determination was made on whether any content was contrary to the essential categories. While finalizing the analysis, the main themes within each category were discovered, and an outline was established, describing the inter-category relationships. Lastly, strong quotations supporting each outline were selected from the data and used in the text.

Ensuring that the study’s trustworthiness is a part of the process to minimize the subjectivity of researchers in qualitative research [29], and in this study, we tried to secure its trustworthiness by meeting with three qualitative research experts. The feasibility of the data collection, analysis, and interpretation process for the interview data was reviewed at the expert meeting, and the researchers reflected their opinions.

3. Results

3.1. The Attraction of Taekwondowon and Muju’s Expectations

3.1.1. The Necessity of Establishing Taekwondowon and Its Attraction to Muju

In South Korea, the birthplace of taekwondo, there was a place considered the mecca for taekwondo—Kukkiwon—which was established in Seoul in 1972 as a central training facility that has played a leading role in the globalization and vitalization of taekwondo. Kukkiwon has played a pivotal role in developing taekwondo as a representative global martial art, beyond Korea, by operating leaders’ education and training, research, training demonstration teams, hosting the World Taekwondo Leaders Forum, the overseas dispatch of instructors, the development and operation of taekwondo tourism products, and hosting the World Taekwondo Festival [30]. However, Kukkiwon had one limitation.

Too small. Kukkiwon had only one building. A single building is not enough as a holy land for taekwondo. We needed a comprehensive complex where foreign instructors visit for training and education and international events take place.

(Respondent 1)

As Kukkiwon’s limited facility became an issue among taekwondo officials, the need for a comprehensive taekwondo complex has been raised since the 1990s. The Korean government also sympathized with this problem and devised the establishment of Taekwondowon. In 2005, the Ministry of Culture, Sports, and Tourism founded TPF and assigned TPF to construct Taekwondowon, promote, and internationalize taekwondo.

Initially, the total project cost would be more than $839 million, so there was a huge competition for attracting Taekwondowon among local governments as it was depicted as a “golden goose.” Due to the overheating of competition, the project cost was reduced to $209 million, but 17 local governments, including Muju, submitted applications for the bid.

(Respondent 3)

Muju was more eager to host the 2014 Winter Olympics than Taekwondowon. Muju, which hosted Korea’s first international winter event (the 1997 Winter Universiade), hoped to position itself as the mecca for winter sports in South Korea. However, the bid for the Winter Olympics did not go as the city desired and was finally rejected. Instead, Muju entered a bid to compete for Taekwondowon.

Muju citizens put in a special and bloody effort. The citizens organized the hosting committee for Taekwondowon, and when the evaluation committee visited Muju for on-site inspection, several banners wishing successful bids were posted on the road from Muju IC to the entrance to the candidate site. About 400 taekwondo-posed scarecrows were installed on the road. Elementary school students also sent Christmas cards to the evaluation committee members. [Didn’t other local governments do that?] They didn’t do that. And we established a sisterhood with Dēngfēng Shì (An administrative district of Shaolin Temple in China, which is known as the mecca for kung fu) at that time.

(Respondent 4)

In the initial plan, we emphasized that Muju has historically continued to be a region for martial arts. And the candidate area for bidding was so beautiful. The air was good, and it was surrounded by mountains, so the conditions were very good as a martial arts training site. In addition, the land acquisition cost could be greatly reduced as it is state-owned land, and it was a significant factor as well.

(Respondent 5)

From this approach, Muju succeeded in attracting Taekwondowon. Later in May 2009, the long-awaited groundbreaking ceremony for Taekwondowon was held in Muju.

3.1.2. Attracting Taekwondowon, What Did Muju Expect?

Taekwondowon was known as a golden goose. What was Muju expecting?

We expected the economic ripple effect first. Also, job creation for local residents and boosting the pride and self-esteem of the citizens were expected.

(Respondent 3)

When we attracted Taekwondowon, I expected that local infrastructure would be provided. The light airfield was also included in the proposal, and there was also a plan to transform Muju into Taekwondo City. We expected to attract a taekwondo school that would help vitalize the local economy, and jobs would be created for local people so that a lot of wealth and value would be produced.

(Respondent 5)

The reason why a small town like Muju attracted Taekwondowon was, undoubtedly, because of the goal of revitalizing the local economy. However, Muju envisioned a bigger picture that differed from other local governments.

It is estimated that there are 210 member countries of the World Taekwondo Federation, and 150 million people are training in taekwondo around the world. There is a potential market of 600 million people, assuming a family of four. The lifelong dream of 150 million taekwondo people is to visit the holy land of taekwondo. So, our plan was to make taekwondo practitioners worldwide visit Muju as if on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land with their families. Ultimately, the core of our regional development plan was to achieve sustainable regional economic, social, and cultural development by becoming holy land for taekwondo.

(Respondent 3)

Muju is historically known as the land of national martial arts. The area called Gucheon-dong in Muju is where Gucheon (which means 9000) warriors of the Samhan Era were stationed to practice martial arts; namely, it was the base of 9000 warriors. Moreover, Seolcheon-myeon (Seolcheon means creek of snow), where Taekwondowon is located, was so named because the water in which these 9000 warriors washed rice to cook on mornings became as white as snow. As such, Muju has historically been a land overflowing with the energy of martial artists. For this reason, the people of Muju County had a different will to transform their city into the mecca for taekwondo by attracting Taekwondowon.

The project for Muju to become the mecca for taekwondo was largely planned by relocating taekwondo-related organizations to Taekwondowon, strengthening taekwondo education on Muju County’s regular curriculum, and encouraging an influx of domestic and foreign taekwondo trainees into Muju.

I wanted Taekwondowon to come to Muju and all organizations related to taekwondo to gather. If Kukkiwon, the Korea Taekwondo Association, and the World Taekwondo Federation all came down to Muju, I thought that Muju would literally become a taekwondo city and a taekwondo holy land.

(Respondent 1)

Our big picture was to attract Taekwondowon and make Taekwon City as a result. I wanted to create an educational system that could nurture taekwondo in Muju, from elementary school to middle and high school to university. By establishing Taekwondo Village, we hoped for taekwondo practitioners from this country and even foreign countries to come to reside after retirement. This concept was included in the attracting project for Taekwondowon.

(Respondent 5)

Muju, the city of national martial arts, wanted more than any other city to host Taekwondowon, which would become the mecca for taekwondo. As a result, after five years of construction following the groundbreaking ceremony, Taekwondowon’s opening ceremony was held in April 2014, and Muju and Taekwondowon began to walk the path of coexistence.

3.2. The Attraction of Taekwondowon and its Consequential Impact on Muju

3.2.1. The Establishment of the Administrative and Legal System for the Utilization of Taekwondowon

The MCO has a unique department called the “Taekwondo Team” that cannot be found in other county-level local governments. The Taekwondo Team is not an athletic group but an administrative unit comprising one head and two officials.

There was a department called Taekwondo Park in MCO. It was newly established when attracting Taekwondowon, and one public official was assigned at Taekwondowon to serve as an administrative bridge between MCO and Taekwondowon. That’s what the Taekwondo Team is today.

(Respondent 5)

The Taekwondo Team not only supports taekwondo in Muju County, taekwondo education and taekwondo teams at schools, the Taekwondo Association and demonstration teams, and facilitates external cooperation with taekwondo-related organizations, but it also promotes the international exchange of taekwondo, holds domestic taekwondo competitions, operates and manages a taekwondo village, and develops taekwondo-related cultural content. In addition, the Taekwondo Team hosts monthly meetings with the TPF and citizens, hosts international taekwondo competitions, established the International Taekwondo Academy, attracts private investment in Taekwondowon, manages convenience facilities in Taekwondowon, and acts as a task force related to Taekwondowon [31].

[Is there a Taekwondo Team in other county-level administrations?] No. There is only one in Muju. Other counties do not do it like this. Also, the Taekwondo Adventure facility has been installed in the private district of Taekwondowon and is currently attracting management companies. Most importantly, Muju is the only county that has ordinances related to taekwondo.

(Respondent 4)

A complete investigation of the autonomous laws (ordinances and rules) of the Republic of Korea revealed nine local government regulations related to taekwondo. Among them, eight cases are enacted and enforced at the city or province level, and Muju is the only county-level district to have an ordinance titled, ”Ordinance on the Support and Development of Muju Taekwondowon”. Generally, in a situation where an administrative unit in charge of taekwondo is deployed at the city or province level, Muju is the only county equipped with the administrative and legal support to spur urban development using Taekwondowon.

3.2.2. Regional Ripple Effects

The regional ripple effects of the Taekwondowon attraction in Muju can be largely divided into its effect by the TPF and the domestic and international events held by the TPF and MCO at Taekwondowon.

Effect by the TPF and Its Employees

First, the effect by the TPF can be explained by the influx of employees into Muju, the consequential local economic activities and the purchase of local agricultural products by the TPF.

There are more than 200 employees in TPF, and there are more people who have moved in from outside than those who already lived in Muju. As a result, they must build a house to live in, or they must live paying monthly rent, so those who are in the house rental business have increased annual income. And the consumer goods caused by more than 200 people eating, sleeping, and living are all consumed in Muju.

(Respondent 1)

As TPF employees are residing in Muju, the local commercial area has been activated. So, a few years ago, the Foundation conducted research and found that 213 employees are economically active in Muju for about $1.5 million a year.

(Respondent 3)

After a self-investigation in 2020, TPF announced that 83 out of 90 Foundation employees were transferred to Muju in 2020, and 220 resident employees (83 Foundation employees and 137 partner employees) of Muju were engaged in economic activities worth about 1.51 million USD a year in Muju (see

Table 2. The economic value that TPF employees contribute to Muju.

Business	Calculation of Annual Economic Effects
Housing rental	83 individuals × 250 USD/month (avg.) = 20,750 USD/month and 249,000 USD/ year
Restaurants and pubs	220 individuals × 126 USD/month (avg.) = 27,720 USD/month and 332,640 USD/year
Food and household goods	220 individuals × 126 USD/month (avg.) = 27,720 USD/month and 332,640 USD/year
Beauty, hospital, gas station, etc.	220 individuals × 126 USD/month (avg.) = 27,720 USD/month and 332,640 USD/year
Others	220 individuals × 82 USD (avg.) = 18,040 USD/month and 216,480 USD/year
An annual expenditure of 1.51 million USD by the employees of TPF

Resource: [32].

).

We [TPF] outsource the restaurant. Those companies buy food materials in bulk from their headquarters at cheap prices and use them when cooking. But MCO officially requested us to buy some Muju agricultural products. So, we purchased a certain amount of rice, fresh vegetables, and fruits for each season.

(Respondent 1)

As an example, looking at the purchase records of Muju agricultural products of the TPF in 2018, a total of 740 bags (32,628 lb) of Muju rice was purchased. However, kimchi could not be purchased because its partner company owns its own factory; nevertheless, the purchase of local agricultural such as rice, apples, and kimchi was recommended when selecting new companies [32], thereby confirming their willingness to cooperate with the local economy as much as possible.

Effects of the Events at Taekwondowon

TPF held the first official event—the 8th World Taekwondo Culture Expo—in July 2014, just three months after the opening ceremony of Taekwondowon. The six-day event comprised taekwondo demonstrations, individual matches, seminars, and tour events with 830 participants from 24 countries. It was followed by the 6th World Youth Taekwondo Camp (140 participants from 18 countries), the 8th International Taekwondo Symposium (approximately 200 Koreans and foreigners), and the ASEAN youth taekwondo cultural exchange camp (64 participants from 9 countries). In 2015, 10 domestic and international events were held, including the 9th World Taekwondo Culture Expo (451 participants from 24 countries), and 11 events were held in 2016. In particular, 31 events (53,667 participants) were held in 2017, leaving a differentiated achievement from the previous year. Since then, Taekwondowon has held 21 domestic and international events in 2018 and 17 in 2019 [33].

TPF and MCO actively host domestic and international taekwondo events. Then the players will come. We [TPF] have 256 rooms and can accommodate 1200 people simultaneously. But we can accommodate only 500 people after the competition officials have assigned first. Problem is that the number of players is more than 2000. Then the rest will stay nearby. Through hosting competitions and events, visitors eat, sleep, and consume simple things here [Muju]. Another representative event held at Taekwondowon is Taekwondo Culture Expo. At this time, meal coupons are given to participants, and participants use it at a registered nearby restaurant. We pay for it later.

(Respondent 1)

It is of great help to the local economy. In international competitions, visitors come out to eat and lodge, and the economic effects of them are considerable. So, after Taekwondowon was built, a lot of pensions and cafes have been opened in this area. And what used to be small businesses today has become large. The monthly rent has also gone up a lot. It’s 500,000 won (approx. $418) per month, which is too high for a rural area. Also, when holding large-scale events, there are many cases where the cafeteria within the Taekwondowon is not enough. In that case, participants often eat outside. During the event period, late-night food, delivery food, and fried chicken store have a good income.

(Respondent 2)

TPF reported that during taekwondo competitions and events, participants frequently visit the local commercial area, especially after dinner. For example, a survey on the usage of participants’ facilities at the 4th National Taekwondo Championships held for five days from 7 July 2018, revealed that 2781 (83.3%) participants stayed in lodges nearby while 539 participants stayed in Taekwondowon (16.7%). Furthermore, among the 539 participants who stayed at Taekwondowon, only 96 participants used the restaurant at the Taekwondowon, confirming that the rate of use of external facilities was overwhelming regarding both accommodation and restaurants [32].

The ripple effects on the local economy from the international competitions held at Taekwondowon can also be confirmed from analyzing the 2017 WTF World Taekwondo Championships (see

Table 3. Summary of regional economic effects of the 2017 WTF World Taekwondo Championships.

#	Regional Economic Effect Details
1	Employment inducement effect on 1033 individuals
2	Up to 50% of food material purchased from local businesses
3	Priority allocation to local companies for cultural events and advertisement production
4	Selecting Muju Wine as an official partner at official dinners, providing an opportunity for international exposure
5	Permission to sell local agricultural and special products at the entrance to Taekwondowon
6	Support for local restaurants and environment improvement project
7	Linear improvement work for the dangerous sections of roadway between Muju IC and Taekwondowon
8	Including the four-lane road expansion project between Muju IOC and Taekwondowon in the 4th five-year national road construction plan
9	Opening a night market in the Muju Firefly Market for local agricultural and special product sales
10	Opening a night market in the Muju Firefly Market for local agricultural and special product sales
11	Establishing food, snack booths, agricultural and speciality products run by Muju residents in Taekwondowon
12	Operating Muju Tour, connecting Muju attractions such as Bandi Land, Meoru Wine Cave, and Muju Deogyusan Resort

Resource: [35].

). This event, held for seven days from June 24 to 30, 2017, was visited by approximately 40,000 people, including 1768 athletes from 183 countries, and was assessed as having an economic effect of more than 835 million USD [34].

3.3. Muju: Dreaming of Being Transformed into a Sustainable International Tourism City as the Mecca for Taekwondo

Since the initial stage of its establishment, Taekwondowon aimed to bring the symbolism of taekwondo’s mecca from Kukkiwon. As of the end of 2021, the Kukkiwon Training Center was moved to Taekwondowon, with eight Kukkiwon employees stationing at Taekwondowon. Since then, 4000 trainees in 2016, 12,000 in 2017, and 20,000 in 2018 participated in the training program at Taekwondowon instead of Kukkiwon. In addition, right after Taekwondowon opened, it succeeded in hosting the 2015 World Youth Taekwondo Championships and the 2017 WTF World Taekwondo Championships, increasing the utility of Taekwondowon as a facility for international taekwondo events [31]. MCO also planned to invest 7.8 million USD to build the Taekwondo Village in Seolcheon-myeon, Muju, where 40 households can reside in 2021 [36].

Taekwondo Village is to create a village where Taekwondo elders in Korea and abroad can come and rest for the rest of their life. It equips community center, healing therapy center, healing science garden, and outdoor cultural space. Even if they pass away, the ossuary is prepared, meaning that their souls will be enshrined in this holy land of taekwondo.

(Respondent 5)

As such, it was confirmed that Muju Taekwondowon was gradually established as a sacred place for taekwondo, and in Muju, various social forms of overhead capital were expanded, and tourism products using Taekwondowon were developed.

3.3.1. Expansion of Social Overhead Capital

Social overhead capital is capital that indirectly contributes to production activities, such as roads, railroads, ports, telecommunications, electricity, and public services. As the symbol for the mecca of taekwondo was gradually transferred into Taekwondowon, Taekwondo Team and the Tourism Promotion Division of MCO conducted various social overhead capital installation projects to reinforce its symbolic image as a taekwondo city and mecca for taekwondo.

First, after attracting Taekwondowon, road maintenance and widening projects were accelerated. For example, when the 2017 WTF World Taekwondo Championships was held, road linearization was made on the dangerous section between Muju IC and Taekwondowon. In addition, a four-lane widening project for the same section was included in the 4th five-year national road construction plan with a construction cost of 130 million USD.

The road from Muju IC to Taekwondowon was very old, with a lot of dangerous sections. By making it straight and building a bridge, we made a linearization project so that traffic could flow smoothly without danger.

(Respondent 5)

Meanwhile, the MCO installed more than 20 taekwondo symbolic sculptures in Muju, centered on the 22.6 km national road connecting Muju IC to Taekwondowon to reinforce the image of the taekwondo city (see Figure 2 and Figure 3).

To match the image of Taekwondowon, I tried to build a Taekwondo Street from the entrance of Muju IC to Taekwondowon. So, I installed taekwondo sculptures to show that the Taekwondowon is in Muju. I made it when I was the department head of Tourism Promotion at MCO.

(Respondent 5)

Various sculptures have been installed in several places to encourage tourists to perceive that “Muju is a taekwondo city.” Recently, we have been working on the Taekwon V Land project, the Taekwon Character Park Construction Project, and the Taekwondo Park Construction Project.

(Respondent 4)

MCO is currently producing a 12 m high moving Taekwon V Robot sculpture with a total project cost of 5.2 million USD to be installed in Taekwon V Land in June 2023 [37]. In addition, the Department of Tourism Promotion plans to expand the tourism facilities to promote Muju to the outside world through the Taekwon V Land, the Taekwon Character Park, and the Taekwondo Park, and to encourage tourists to visit Muju [38].

The new airport bus route between Incheon International Airport and Muju is also noticeable. Previously, getting to Taekwondowon from Incheon International Airport was complicated and uncomfortable as visitors could only arrive at Taekwondowon after three transfers.

Jeonbuk Express, which is under the jurisdiction of Muju, did not have the intention to transport visitors from Incheon Airport to Taekwondowon. So, Taekwondowon, Muju County Council, and Jeonbuk Province Office consulted together on this issue and finally established the bus route. The strongest rationale here was “it is very difficult for Taekwondowon visitors to come to Muju from Incheon International Airport”.

(Respondent 1)

According to the press release of Haeyang Lee, a member of the Muju County Council who played a key role in establishing the airport bus route, the new bus route was to promote the vitalization of Taekwondowon, and it was achieved by the cooperative efforts of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport; the Chungcheongnam Province Office; Jeollabuk Province Office; the MCO; and the Muju County Council. Most of all, the active role of the TPF played a decisive role during the decision-making process. In response, an official from the TPF said, “The establishment of the airport bus route is expected to greatly contribute to the development of the tourism industry in Muju, including Taekwondowon. I am happy to be able to provide comfortable transportation for many instructors and trainees who will visit Taekwondowon from abroad” [39]. Thus, the airport bus route, which previously seemed impossible, has secured a schedule comprising four trips daily, thanks to the attraction of Taekwondowon and the efforts of the TPF.

3.3.2. The Reinforcement of Tourism Products Using Taekwondowon

After attracting Taekwondowon, the MCO spurred the development of tourism products using Taekwondowon (see

Table 4. Public tourism programs utilizing Taekwondowon.

Product Name	Theme	Use of Taekwondowon
Muju Firefly festival	Two days and one-night ecological expedition	Taekwondo demonstration performance Taekwondo “Yap” experience Sponsoring Taekwondowon Observatory and Monorail
Jeonbuk Tour Pass	Free pass for major tourist attractions in Jeonbuk province	Taekwondo demonstration performance Taekwondo “Yap” experience (free) Visit the National Taekwondo Museum Taekwondowon circular bus use Monorail pass (free)
Taekwon Adventure	Youth Taekwondo training facilities and programs	Provides 8 courses and 70 kinds of adventures and experiences in the private district of Taekwondowon

). Most of all, the Muju Firefly Festival began to include Taekwondowon facilities and taekwondo content. The Muju Firefly Festival, which first emerged in 1997, is one of Korea’s representative cultural events, held annually in August [40].

Taekwondo activity became a part of the Firefly Festival. Taekwondowon and the Festival are connected, so we have a “1 Night 2 Days Ecological Exploration” at Taekwondowon site. Taekwondowon provides camping grounds, taekwondo demonstration performance, and an observatory.

(Respondent 4)

Jeollabuk Province Office, a higher administrative unit of Muju, also strengthened a public tourism program—Jeonbuk Tour Pass—by including Taekwondowon as one of the visiting facilities. The Jeollabuk Tour Pass is a free-use tour pass that provides a discount of up to 50% on 80 major tourist attractions, restaurants, accommodation, performances, and experiences within the province [41].

Representatively, taekwondo performances are held twice a day. A lot of people come to see it. After watching the taekwondo performance, tourists can go to the observatory by monorail. It has become a local cultural product and is being used as a part of the Jeonbuk Tour Pass.

(Respondent 1)

Since 2019, aiming to revitalize tourism around Taekwondowon, a total project cost of 2.93 million USD has been invested in accelerating the Taekwondo Adventure Project in the Taekwondowon private district, and now a private operator is being invited. This project is expected to minimize the dissatisfaction of family tourists who have complained about the lack of youth-targeted facilities and create a synergistic effect as a new tourism product in connection with tourist destinations in the Muju area [42].

Meanwhile, Taekwondowon has been designed for training and tourism purposes, and the TPF has developed and operated a variety of tourism programs.

Taekwondowon consists of an experience zone, training zone, and symbol zone from the entrance. The Foundation is opening the experience hall and museum located in the experience zone to the public, and the most representative program is “Taekwon Tour” that TPF is directly operating with financial support from MCO.

(Respondent 1)

In addition, various tourism and training programs or events are operated in Taekwondowon (see

Table 5. Directly managed tourism and training programs and events by TPF.

Categories	Contents
Programs for one-day visitors	Experience programs: Taekwondo demonstration performances and experiencing taekwondo, exhibitions at the National Taekwondo Museum, and seasonal events Facility-based content: Outdoor traditional training center, monorail, and observatory
Training programs	Package programs: Taekwondo practitioners, student groups, corporations, and local governments Publicity programs: Family camps, taekwondo skill improvement camps, and taekwondo specialized programs Support programs: Youth training activity certification system and free semester system
Annual events at Taekwondowon	Hosting and supporting taekwondo competitions and events and support The “Taekwondo Day Commemoration Ceremony” held annually on September 4 Hosting several international events (e.g., the World Youth Taekwondo Camp, the World University Taekwondo Festival)

Resource: [32]

).

The tourism programs caused an annual increase in Taekwondowon’s visitors from 270,000 in 2016 to 330,000 in 2017 and 330,000 in 2018: representing a 20.6% increase compared to 2016 [32]. Noticeably, Taekwondowon was selected as one of the “100 Best Korean Tour Sites” by the Korea Tourism Organization for 2019/2020 and was recognized as a major tourist destination in South Korea.

4. Discussion: Muju’s Journey to Be a Sustainable Global Tourism City

The MCO has been nurturing the tourism industry primarily by utilizing the natural environment in a rural and remote area with a 52% dependence on the primary industry. Attracting Taekwondowon was promoted within the same context, and various economic ripple effects were achieved from the sports-themed tourism facility. However, Muju had a bold plan to ultimately brand the city as the mecca of taekwondo, aiming to become a sustainable global tourism city. The changes in Muju evident since its success in attracting Taekwondowon are discussed through the perspective of city branding.

Economic changes since the 1980s, such as globalization, informatization, post-industrialization, and localization, threaten each city’s mode of existence and have promoted competition between cities [2]. To respond to these changes, city governments worldwide have pursued changes to entrepreneurial management; pursued urban management, emphasizing the multifaceted competitiveness of cities; and increased interest in city branding to give cities a new differentiated image [7,43]. Accordingly, cities have improved their competitiveness by discovering, promoting, and branding sports as a means for inter-city differentiation [2].

From early on, Muju started branding as a sports city. After successfully hosting the Winter Universiade in 1997, it tried hosting the 2014 Winter Olympics and attempted to brand the city as the mecca for winter sports in South Korea. Unfortunately, it failed to be adopted as a candidate city, then turning its attention to taekwondo rather than winter sports. Reflecting on the historical identity of Muju as the home of martial arts training, it actively attracted Taekwondowon, and its efforts to ultimately become the mecca of taekwondo began in earnest. Essentially, the MCO established an administrative department in charge of taekwondo, which is not found in other county-level administrations, and enacted the “Ordinance on Support and Development of Taekwondowon in Muju” to spur city branding using Taekwondowon. Sports can become a driving force for a city’s economic reconstruction and development when the city’s government, pursuing sports-related city branding, can optimally coordinate sports management capabilities [43]. Thus, the establishment of the Taekwondo Team in MCO and the enactment of the taekwondo ordinance to support their activities can be interpreted as a unique effort by Muju to differentiate itself from other cities.

Another characteristic of city branding in Muju is its pursuit of sustainable development rather than a one-time event. Today, global city branding and urban revitalization are condensed into the word “sustainable development” [44]. The sports city branding promoted by cities such as Melbourne in Australia, Manchester and Sheffield in the UK, and Indianapolis in the US is not fragmented city marketing that pursues branding as a global city by attracting one-time mega-sporting events. Melbourne is the epitome of a sustainable sports city. With a population of four million, Melbourne has already held mega-sporting events, such as the Australian Open, hosted annually since 1861, and promoted sports urbanization at the city government level for economic reconstruction. Melbourne Park was strategically constructed in 1988 to maximize the Australian Open [45]. Following its completion, Melbourne Park attracted 266,436 visitors, an increase of 90% compared to the previous year. Based on this success, the Melbourne City Council established the Melbourne Major Event Company (MMEC) in 1991, a sports event commissioning company dedicated to attracting and marketing major sports. MMEC’s initial strategy focused on attracting one-time mega-events, such as the President’s Cup Golf, but since the 2000s, the “Event Calendar Management Strategy” was applied to create a sustainable sport and cultural heritage, turning to intensify the annual sporting event that was managed monthly. As a result, Melbourne hosted over 30 one-time or multi-year sporting events from 2006 to 2009, using the facilities from the 2006 Commonwealth Games. In 2010, Melbourne set up 19 annual, lasting events as unique sports property and succeeded in establishing urban sports products and making sustainable sports heritage [23].

Like Melbourne, Muju also introduced the “Event Calendar Management Strategy” by attracting Taekwondowon. Taekwondowon has been hosting domestic and international events, starting with 5 events in 2014, 10 in 2015, 11 in 2016, 31 in 2017, 21 in 2018, and 17 in 2019. Among these, a total of nine events are held annually: the Taekwondo Culture Expo, the World Youth Taekwondo Camp (twice a year), the Global Cadet Taekwondo Camp, the Taekwondo Hope Sharing Camp (four times a year), the Spring Taekwondo Family Camp, the Autumn Taekwondo Family Camp, Taekwondowon Field Training (twice a year), and the Taekwondo Day and Taekwondowon Night events. Moreover, the Firefly Festival operated by MCO is included on this annual calendar and held annually in August. In addition, the establishment of the Taekwondo Team at MCO, aimed at creating a city brand using sports and taking charge of various Taekwondo-related businesses and events, plays a similar role to Melbourne’s MMEC. However, because it is a division of the three official county offices, it is expected that there would be a limit to exerting the same capabilities as a specialized company. Thus, it is suggested that Muju attract and collaborate with sports marketing companies as a development task for sustainable urban development.

A city can continuously promote city branding through sports urbanization by constantly using sports to ensure a flow of several visitors. To this end, sustainable, attractive products, such as cultural heritage and the city’s natural environmental heritage, must be provided beyond a one-time sporting event [23]. In this regard, MCO has provided a natural environmental heritage through a tourism program that utilizes the natural environment of the countryside, simultaneously strengthening its cultural heritage by attracting Taekwondowon. Additionally, Taekwondowon has developed tourism products as urban sports products and provides outdoor content, such as taekwondo demonstration performances, taekwondo experience programs, and monorails, as well as training programs targeting taekwondo trainees and the World Youth Taekwondo Camp. The MCO and Jeollabuk Provincial Office have also operated the Muju Firefly Festival, Jeonbuk Tour Pass, and Taekwondo Adventure Program, confirming the sound and solid progress of sustainable city branding.

Meanwhile, if the development of tourism products for city branding fails to carefully consider the local community, the newly established theme of development may destroy the unique identity of the region, cause social and cultural conflicts, and further destroy the sense of cohesion within the local community [24]. Moreover, promoting the development of a local community in a specific area may cause conflict, such as the disintegration of the community. For example, Hwaseong, South Korea, constructed a marina facility in a port called “Jeongok” after carefully reflecting on the characteristics of the region related to its sustainable development. As a result, the marina facility made an agreeable settlement with the local community by expanding not only the local economy and social overhead capital, but also improving the cohesiveness of the community [20]. On the other hand, when river rafting and camping facilities were constructed in the Uttarakhand Himalaya area, although there were positive outcomes, residents were forced to experience negative sociocultural fallout, such as increased out-migration, frustration among youth, and cultural degeneration [24]. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the methods and elements of development from the perspective of regional identity and develop tourism products with themes of specialized cultures or products from the region [20]. In Muju’s case, its historical identity as a martial arts training area and the character of Taekwondowon are exquisitely combined, and developing tourism products has been carried out by focusing on themes such as taekwondo and mental training. MCO’s Taekwondo Team has also been playing a role in strengthening local identity by reinforcing taekwondo education in the county’s elementary and secondary education. In addition, MCO’s Taekwondo Team, TPF, and residents were regularizing monthly meetings to preserve community consciousness.

Cities with world-famous sports teams or clubs are called sports cities. Cities that actively participate in hosting various international sporting events, such as the Olympics and the World Cup, and continuously host several domestic and international sporting events are also recognized as sports cities. In addition, cities such as Lausanne, Switzerland, where many major sports companies or organizations are located, or where various sports products and related attractions are well-developed, are also considered sports cities. Muju made it difficult to attract Taekwondowon as the mecca of taekwondo. Thus, domestic and international events were held, part of Kukkiwon’s functions was transferred to Taekwondowon, taekwondo-themed experiential tourism facilities were built, social overhead capital was reinforced and expanded, and the installation of the taekwondo symbol and other achievements were completed. In addition, Muju is awaiting the influx of global taekwondo practitioners by establishing the Taekwondo Village, the Taekwondo Ossuary, and Taekwondo Park. Recently, the MCO has been promoting the establishment of the International Taekwondo Academy, which will be responsible for educating taekwondo instructors worldwide. Berg et al. (2002) divided the level of city products into facilities, industrial clusters, and the city itself, indicating that the city represents the highest level [2]. The changes that appeared throughout Muju in becoming the mecca of taekwondo can be understood as city branding through which the city itself strategically encompasses various categories of city products.

There remain challenges to sustainable development. Most of all, there is a need to expand tourism-themed facilities through private sector investment in Taekwondowon, which covers more than half of the Taekwondowon site. At the time of the feasibility study for the first Taekwondowon installation, the feasibility study was passed on the premise of attracting private investment. However, the private sector investment in the facility has not been carried out as planned. As such, the target revenue as a tourist region has not been achieved, and to overcome this, attracting privately funded facilities remains a task. Fortunately, the Taekwon Adventure Facility (youth training site) has been completed, and a private company is now being sought for its operation. Meanwhile, major taekwondo-related organizations, such as Kukkiwon, the World Taekwondo Federation, and the World Para Taekwondo Federation, are required to fully relocate their headquarters to Taekwondowon. Through this, Muju can be one step closer to successfully branding the city as a mecca for taekwondo. In the same vein, the establishment of the International Taekwondo Academy, which Muju County is currently requesting, must also be achieved for the branding of the Muju. The International Taekwondo Academy is an educational institution; more specifically, a graduate school of taekwondo, issuing international taekwondo instructor licenses and Master’s degrees. Muju expects that the establishment of the International Taekwondo Academy will raise the symbolism of Muju as a mecca for taekwondo by one level. Lastly, the materialization of the central government budget support ordinance and the strengthening of the research capability on taekwondo through the recruitment of researchers within Taekwondowon remain tasks for the win-win development of Muju and Taekwondowon.

5. Conclusions

This study examined the changes that occurred during the seven years after Muju attracted Taekwondowon and its meaning for urban development and city branding. Data were collected by conducting individual interviews with five research participants involved in the business and regional development of Taekwondowon and the MCO from the planning stage of the attraction. Additionally, relevant public documents, as necessary, were provided from MCO. The following conclusions were drawn after analyzing these elements:

First, the MCO has established an administrative and legal system to spur urban development by establishing the Taekwondo Team and enacting taekwondo-related ordinances to actively utilize Taekwondowon. These actions can be interpreted as a specific attempt toward city development and branding, differentiated from other cities at the same level.

Second, the regional ripple effects are largely divided into two categories: the effects from the TPF itself and those from the domestic and international events held in Taekwondowon. First, the effects from the TPF’s and resident staff’s move into Taekwondowon, those on local economic consumption from employees’ move to Muju (e.g., approximately 1.51 million USD a year as of 2018), and the impact on the purchasing of local agricultural products were reported. In addition, as a result of about 20 domestic and international taekwondo events annually hosted by Taekwondowon, local lodging and catering businesses have been generating increased economic profits as, for example, 1033 people were employed and more than 83.85 million USD of economic effects were created in the 2017 WTF World Taekwondo Championships.

Third, Muju has been pursuing a transition into a sustainable international tourism city by earnestly transforming itself into the mecca for taekwondo by attracting Taekwondowon. To this end, the Kukkiwon Training Center was transferred to Taekwondowon, and the international taekwondo events held at Kukkiwon were now held at Taekwondowon. In addition, 7.78 million USD was spent constructing the Taekwondo Village that can accommodate 40 households, providing a residence for retired taekwondo practitioners. Muju’s social overhead capital as a tourist city was expanded through road alignment improvement and road expansion construction completed or in progress.

Last, a new express bus route between Incheon International Airport and Muju was established to relieve the inconvenience experienced by foreign visitors and increase international accessibility to Muju and Taekwondowon. Meanwhile, MCO actively developed and operated tourism products using taekwondo. Using Taekwondowon facilities has provided tourism content, such as a taekwondo tour; taekwondo demonstration performance; the National Taekwondo Museum; and an outdoor traditional training center, monorail, and observatory. The Taekwondo Adventure project has been recently promoted in the Taekwondowon private sector, continuing to achieve city branding through the development of city products.

In summary, Muju attracted Taekwondowon by combining its regional symbolism as a “martial arts training site” and has achieved sustainable development, such as regional economic revitalization, regional infrastructure expansion, and city branding. Therefore, it can be concluded that Muju and Taekwondowon (and the TPF) are successful examples of attracting and utilizing a mega-size sports facility for city development and branding.

The following recommendations are suggested for future studies. This study invited Muju County and Taekwondowon officials as research participants, neglecting to include the perceptions of Muju County residents. Therefore, when exploring the impacts of attracting Taekwondowon on the development of Muju County, it is recommended that future studies supplement this limitation of the current study by including Muju County residents as research participants. Second, skepticism has emerged as a result of extant studies related to the ripple effects of one-time mega-sporting events. Relatedly, this study has explored a mega-sporting facility as a possible alternative instead of events. Therefore, it is recommended that future studies consider another case study that can support the rationale for attracting sustainable sports facilities found in this study.