Role of Reverse Logistics Activities in the Recycling of Used Plastic Bottled Water Waste Management

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of reverse logistics in the recycling of used plastic bottles and waste management in Ethiopia. To achieve the study’s goal, the authors used a descriptive research design where a combination of primary and secondary data sources was employed. Primary data was collected from 258 respondents, while secondary data was taken from office manuals, yearly reports, and brochures. The findings of our analysis show that incineration, landfilling, and dumping of used plastic bottles on the side of the road are all apparent in the environment, making the city and its environs filthy and unpleasant to live in. This study also discovered that reuse and remanufacturing have become less common and are rarely practiced. Even though plastic waste disposal guidelines have been created, our investigation revealed that there is a lack of community understanding regarding solid waste management, and some stakeholders actively disregard waste management proclamations. Thus, it is recommended that all stakeholders, including the government, business owners, plastic bottled water makers, and the public, pay close attention to waste disposal, particularly of non-biodegradable pollutants in Ethiopia’s urban and rural areas.

1. Introduction

It is undeniable that reverse logistics is attracting the interest of researchers and industrial practitioners due to its value for supply chain performance and the expanded demands from various stakeholders. As Govindan et al. [1] reveal, customers are more aware than ever of environmental matters and are pushing companies to employ reverse logistics in their business processes. Furthermore, Vanille et al. [2] and Zhu & Geng [3] indicate that business organizations are incorporating reverse logistics into business operations in reaction to rigorous environmental rules established by authorities, competitors, and managers’ commitments. Likewise, the societies in which the companies run their business requires them to implement environmentally sensible practices and forces organizations to include reverse logistics in their strategic plan and business processes [4].

Increasing environmental awareness means that managers of business organizations are under pressure to run their operations sustainably by applying the triple bottom line agenda: cost-effective, ecological, and societal dimensions. Nowadays, the use of bottled water has increased and is expected to grow more in the future as the planet’s inhabitants increase in number. The increased consumption of bottled water over tap water is attributed to consumer preferences, marketing promotion, portability, and cleanliness of bottled waters [5]. The impact of bottled water on overall environmental pollution is very high due to ineffective waste management and emissions as a result of the polyethylene terephthalate (PET) recycling procedure [6]. However, the objective may not be realized without the collaboration of all actors in business operation. Application of green supply chain management (GSCM) and joint attitudes are essential for firms seeking to reduce their impact on the environment and to gain a competitive advantage [7].

The goal of reverse logistics is to minimize the utilization of energy and raw materials by plastic producers, which in turn has a helpful impact on environmental protection in sustainable development [8]. Accordingly, reverse logistics has a crucial position in building a green material distribution channel, and its significance has been widely acknowledged. For instance, reverse logistics has established qualified associations such as the Reverse Logistics Executive Council (RLEC) in the United States of America, which works together with academics, and the European Commission supports REVLON and RELOOP projects which are based on reverse logistics [9]. The restructuring of the supply chain to manage material returns is crucial to efficiently recycling, remanufacturing, or disposal of waste [10].

Due to its economic and environmental significance, reverse logistics is becoming demanded by all stakeholders [11]. The objective of reverse logistics is to reduce activities that hurt the environment. Validating this statement, Ashby et al. [12] affirm the main goal of reverse logistics is to get rid of environmental wastes such as hazardous materials, energy use, emissions, and solid waste (used bottles) that endanger the environment. Incorporating tangible reverse logistics routines into the company’s supply chain has a great advantage for the organization as well as the environment. Reverse logistics lowers waste and improves company profits [13] and assists the organization to respond to the ever-fluctuating demands of customers and the community at large [14].

Business owners in developing countries very rarely apply reverse logistics in the supply chain for their discarded plastic bottles after use. Nevertheless, in most developing countries, reverse logistics in the supply chain encompasses the substantial informal economy [15]. Moreover, reverse logistics chains in developing economies are not coordinated and rely on reusable materials gathered from waste-dispensing vans and provisional dumpsites [16].

As natural resources are scarce and most of them are unrenewable, their unwise and increased usage has been damaging to their chances of future existence [17]. Due to sustainability issues, it is important to adopt one of the alternatives of sustainable waste management, such as recycling, to safeguard our scarce natural resources. Rather than focusing on waste disposal approaches, it is better to consider waste as a later additional resource [18]. Since recycling is the process of changing wastes to materials that have an economic value, there is a chance to reduce the quantity of waste collection and disposal [16]. In a nutshell, reverse logistics is powered by elements including ecological laws, corporate obligations, finance, and service quality [19].

1.1. Reverse Logistics Activities

Reverse logistics support of a circular economy is changing the linear business version of materials movement to a closed-loop of products and materials flow. Employing reverse logistics helps a business organization in reducing, reusing, and recycling waste and promotes a good public image [20]. There are many activities in the reverse logistics area that companies require in order to retain returned materials, and viable places for the returned products must be distinguished, i.e., assembly line, delivery, and refabrication lines. Different types of products in the reversal movement in reverse logistics systems can be directly reused, repaired, refurbished, remanufactured, recycled, incinerated, or landfilled, which we called reverse logistics activities [21]. During reverse logistics activities, incineration and landfilling are the last options when the returned product provides no value (waste) to the organization. Thus, waste disposal with energy recovery minimizes the volume of landfills by using the caloric content of the generated waste. Increasing energy through incineration could also produce economic benefits if that energy is utilized for new purposes.

Reuse is deemed to be the main activity of reverse logistics, where the product can be utilized once more for a similar function. Seles et al. [22] portrayed reuse as including the salvaging of any element of the product that has been returned to the organization that retains some form of value. Moreover, reuse entails cleaning used products, recovering functional packaging materials, refurbishing, and repairing [14]. From all reverse logistics systems, reuse is deemed as the most eco-friendly waste management practice [23]. Different kinds of recovery systems in an integrated supply chain were depicted in Figure 1 as follows:

Graczyk and Witkowski [9] discussed some reverse logistics activities as follows: restoring is recovering utilized materials at work even though the restored product is not as good as the original material. Refurbishing is to regain some qualities of used products. The new product involves incorrect components which substitute the unaffected parts of the old products. The objectives of remanufacturing are to make the used product as new as the original one. In cannibalization, only a few portions of the used products which are recoverable can be selected and reused. In recycling, the returned product’s identity is not preserved as in the case of the previous activities. The purpose of recycling is to reuse the used products as raw materials to manufacture new products. In European countries such as Germany and the UK, 75 percent of metals are recycled from abandoned parts [21].

Recent studies [24,25,26,27] show that the distribution of packed bottled water to the Ethiopian domestic and international market is increasing at an alarming rate, as the community prefers bottled water to tap water. However, environmental experts and the country’s regulations regarding the environment have raised the issue of environmental sustainability as the plastic water package is not eco-friendly. Thus, it is an option for Ethiopian companies producing bottled water to recycle/reuse the plastic packages after collecting from the end-users as part of reverse logistics as these take hundreds of years to decompose [28].

There are several possible means of handling plastic in the natural environment such as disposal by landfilling, recycling, and incineration [29]. According to Ensermu’s findings regarding used water bottle disposal in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [28], only 3.5% of the used plastic bottles are returned to collectors for recycling, while 35.9%, 37.3%, and 23.2% of the used plastic water bottles are thrown in rubbish bins, reused, or disposed of anywhere. There are many factors contributing to the low performance of solid waste management in Ethiopia. For instance, financial problems and lack of experience in waste reduction, recycling of wastes, finding energy options, waste separation, and composition are some of the challenges [30].

1.2. Plastic Waste Management

There is a growing concern about plastic waste around the world. Our environment and health have been harmed by the significant growth in waste plastics. Thus, a systematic and scientific method of plastic waste disposal is recommended to safeguard the life of environmental habitats. Waste disposal can be done either by recycling, incineration, or landfill. As a means of recovering energy from heavily contaminated plastic, incineration is preferred over landfilling. Nabavi-Pelesaraei et al. [31] prove in their study that incineration can be a more cost-effective and viable alternative to landfilling. However, disposing of plastic waste by incineration and landfilling damages the environment and societal wellbeing. While incineration may be considered an option, it produces hazardous pollutants such as dioxins and furans, which are highly undesirable [32]. Additionally, plastics have the potential to stay in the soil for 300 years, and slowly release methane gas into the atmosphere if landfilling is used as the means of plastic waste disposal [33]. When solid wastes are dumped, buried, or burned, it causes pollution and increases the quantity of solid waste accumulated over time. Moreover, landfills can be dangerous because of the high concentration of non-biodegradable (plastic) goods that slowly leak poisonous chemicals into the surrounding area [34]. Thus, recycling of plastic waste is more environmentally friendly than incineration or landfilling. Apart from reducing waste disposal and oil usage, recycling plastics creates jobs and increases the operating efficiency of industries [35].

Wang et al. [36] support the idea of waste plastic recycling by developing the technology of flotation as a promising waste plastic separation method that has the potential to reduce adverse environmental effects, offer qualified inputs, and increase plastic recycling efficiency. It is possible to incinerate and landfill other waste which is bio-degradable after separating plastics by using floatation technology. Another technology called “Waste treating Waste” was developed by Wang et al. [37] which converts waste plastics into Fenton-like catalysts used for wastewater treatment. The application of this innovative strategy reduces the disposal of waste plastics in the environment. Moreover, Plakas et al. [38] built a novel waste tracking system for monitoring plastic packaging waste, contributing to global efforts to combat the problem of environmental pollution by plastic bottle manufacturers.

1.3. Legal Framework for Reverse Logistics and Waste Management

To come up with a concrete image and understanding of the existing waste administration method, its consistency with ecological regulation, and its effect, it is helpful to explore the legal systems that govern waste. Governments and concerned organizations establish regulations to enforce the use of green practices such as reverse logistics by business enterprises. As Govindan et al. [1] indicate, the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directives dictate that producers of electrical and electronic materials collect, recycle, and recover their used products in the European case. In addition to this, state members are obliged and strive to meet the goal of recycling 50% of their household’s waste [30]. This directive pushes all governmental and non-governmental organizations to develop approaches to recycling plastic materials.

Japan has legislation on recycling (containers and packaging recycling Act, 1997) which forces business owners to collaborate in the recycling and reuse of plastic materials. Most industry owners are strictly following environmental rules by integrating reverse logistics in their supply chain. For instance, the study made by Darnall et al. [39] and Laosirihongthong et al. [40] shows that companies are determined to implement green practices such as reverse logistics to save their business from legal consequences related to environmental laws. Likewise, in the case of Africa, Adebambo and Adebayo [41] demonstrated that Nigerian food and beverage companies are obliged to incorporate reverse logistics into their supply chain due to environmental policies.

Even though Ethiopia has an environmental proclamation on waste disposal, it does not contain explicit stipulations regarding waste in the form of used plastic bottles. Regardless of the country’s proclamation, nearly all plastic materials used in Ethiopia are not managed in accordance with the law, affecting the sustainability of the environment. Because of the lack of awareness of the community with regard to managing waste and the neglect of waste proclamations, as in other developing countries, almost all Ethiopian towns are affected by plastic waste materials [42,43].

Usually, most manufacturing firms such as the plastic industry cannot give due attention to reverse logistics processes, rather, they concentrate on forwarding logistics activities [24,44]. Environmental preservation is a joint program of business owners and governments in power both in developed and developing countries. Ethiopia is among the countries taking action to make and implement a green economy. However, recycling wastes that come from used plastic bottled water and reverse logistics system implementation is still a problem in developing countries such as Ethiopia [32].

A large number of the community in urban areas of Ethiopia favor bottled water at home, their workplace, or hotels without understanding the effect the used plastic packages have on the ecosystem [28]. Moreover, most civic societies in Ethiopia perceive waste management as the sole responsibility of government authorities due to the literacy gap and lack of awareness. According to Gobena et al. [45], most used plastics in Ethiopia are not collected and returned from end-users to the recycling hub due to the lack of a holistic reverse logistics system. Thus, the following schematic diagram shows the pathway of reverse logistics that was proposed in recycling used plastic bottles as a means of waste management.

The following conceptual framework was developed based on a literature review to show the reverse logistics pathway of used plastic water bottle waste management in this study. According to the framework (Figure 2), used plastic bottles are collected from end-users for processing (cleaning and sorting), remanufacture, and redistribution of the renewed plastic bottles filled with water for users. The application of reverse logistics for recycling plastic bottles has the advantage of reducing the cost of raw materials (the economic drive of applying RL), practicing CSR for company reputation and image building, reducing environmental impact, and environmental protection by managing of waste plastic water bottles. Moreover, the policy has the advantage of enforcing implementation of reverse logistics for plastic recycling.

Furthermore, implementing reverse logistics in the recycling of used plastic bottled water waste management contributes to the achievement of sustainable development goals (SDGs). More specifically, according to Nabavi-Pelesaraei et al. [46] and Hossain, R. et al. [47], plastic waste management has a significant contribution to SDG3: good health and well-being, SDG6: clean water and sanitation, SDG8: Decent work and economic growth, SDG9: industry, innovation, and infrastructure, SDG11: sustainable cities and communities, SDG12: responsible consumption and production, SDG13: climate action, SDG14: life below water, SDG15: life on land.

Safe plastic waste treatment and recycling are critical for reducing plastic waste pollution and supporting environmental protection and sustainable development goals (SDGs) according to Y. Sun et al. [48]. In their research, S. Lahane and R. Kant [49] identified “Waste reduction and environmental sustainability” as a key variable to attaining sustainable development goals (SDGs). In this regard, practicing reverse logistics activities in business operations has a critical role in waste reduction and achieving 2030 sustainable development goals (SDGs).

Accordingly, the main purpose of this paper is to investigate the role of reverse logistics in the recycling of used plastic bottles and waste management in Ethiopia. In addition to the general objective, this study intends to explore the practices of reverse logistics, what drives a company to practice reverse logistics, what the possible challenges to implementing reverse logistics activities are, and to determine what the options are for improving reverse logistics activities implementation in the study area. To this effect, the subsequent sections of the paper are arranged in the following manner: the general methodology of the study was addressed in Section 2. Section 3 delineated data analysis and interpretation, while Section 4 and Section 5 contain discussion of the findings and the conclusion part of the study, respectively. In the final section of this paper, Section 6, limitations, and implications for further study on the subject under investigation are presented.

2. Materials and Methods

We used a mixed research approach (quantitative and qualitative) to augment the validity of findings and exhaustively analyze the observable facts. Additionally, a descriptive research design was also employed for this specific analysis to describe the population or the situation more precisely.

2.1. Study Population and Sample Size Estimation

A target population is a population incorporated in the study in a particular geographical area like county, state or region, city, or town according to their age and sex [50]. Accordingly, the target population of this study was all academic employees of Ambo University and employees of Ambo town municipality. Therefore, from those employees, the researchers were a select sample of respondents. The researchers have used the formula for estimating the sample size provided by Yamane [51]. Out of 726 employees of both Ambo university and Ambo municipality, we selected a total of 258 employees as the sample size.

$$n=\frac{N}{1+N\left(e^2\right)}$$

$$n=\frac{726}{1+726\left({0.05}^2\right)}=258$$

where

• N = is total population
• n = is sample size
• e = is errors (the acceptable sampling errors).

From the above formula, we can see that from the total population of 726, the sample size is 258. According to Yamane, this is the lower number of respondents from the total population (726) to maintain a 95% confidence interval.

By using the proportional sampling method, we determine the sample size separately for both Ambo university and ambo municipality. Thus, the total number of academic employees from Ambo university was 486 and the total number of employees from Ambo municipality was 240, which were selected by informative and systematic methods. The sample size of academic employees from Ambo university was 486 ÷ 726 = 67%, thus 0.67 × 258 = 173 respondents, and the sample size of employees from Ambo municipality was 240 ÷ 726 = 33, thus 0.33 × 258 = 85 respondents. Therefore, by using the proportional sampling method, the sample size of this study from Ambo university employees was 173 respondents and the sample size of employees from Ambo municipality was 85 respondents. Hence, total sample size of this study was 258 respondents who were used for this study. Key informative employees who we believed to have first-hand information such as managers and unit heads were selected for face-to-face interviews.

2.2. Data Sources

The authors gathered information from both primary and secondary sources. Accordingly, we employed questionnaires and interviews as primary data gathering tools, whereas manuals, brochures, and other government policy directives were also used as the main source for secondary data.

2.3. Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments

As measurement characteristics, validity depends on whether a research instrument or tool will measure the outcomes envisioned by the researcher [50]. This study ensures the validity of the tools by using simple language when structuring them and making sure respondents can readily comprehend them. Prospective professionals evaluated the questionnaires before they were used. A team of consultants and experts familiar with the study topic reviewed and confirmed its accuracy. Moreover, pilot studies are important for the development of questionnaires, collecting additional information, enhancing research methods, or adapting effective research tools [52]. Additionally, Kothari [50] posited that confirmatory testing survey questions and interview processes aid in identifying strange questions, acquiring suggestions, identifying deficits, and assisting in the identification of appropriate data analysis methodologies for the study. The researchers were able to confirm and authenticate the research equipment for the final study based on the findings of the pilot study. Thus, the researcher noted that the constructed survey questions were free of doubts, enabling the pilot results to be reproduced continuously throughout the data gathering process.

Using Cronbach’s alpha index, we can assess the validity of a construct by considering the truthful score of the purely theoretical variable being evaluated. Cronbach’s alpha calculates the convergent validity of things in a questionnaire survey to determine its accuracy. The alpha coefficient which varies from 0 to 1 can describe the dependability of variables obtained from dichotomous and/or cross-sectional survey questions and it is more trustworthy when it has a larger scale [53]. As a result, Cronbach’s alpha was used to verify the validity and reliability of the study, in addition to the information provided by consultants and professionals.

2.4. Method of Analyzing Data

To analyze the collected data, descriptive statistical tools were used. The descriptive statistical tools applied for this study were frequencies and percentage value which was computed using SPSS (23). Then the data were analyzed and interpreted with regard to the information collected from respondents. The analysis and interpretation are based on the respondent’s responses and stated in simple and clear sentences to express the qualitative data and quantitative data. The quantitative data were mainly expressed by using tables, percentages, mean values, and rank order, whereas the data collected through interviews and documents were concurrently analyzed qualitatively to strengthen the analysis of the questionnaires.

3. Analysis and Interpretations

The study’s findings are revealed in this section. The information gathered through questionnaires is analyzed and interpreted using the SPSS 23 version software. This chapter contains a detailed analysis of the results of this assessment.

3.1. Validity and Reliability

Cronbach’s alpha (quantification of the survey questionnaires’ internal reliability) was calculated using data from all survey participants, and distinct reliability tests for each of the individual components were computed to examine the stability of the given results. According to Field [53], Cronbach alpha determines how closely item responses correspond to the generally accepted social science cutoff i.e., values more than 0.70 for a set of items to be considered on a scale. As a result, the Cronbach’s alpha test was conducted using SPSS, and the findings are presented in

Table 1. The study’s validity and reliability test.

Reliability Statistics
Cronbach’s Alpha	Cronbach’s Alpha (Standardized) Items	N of Items
0.997	0.997	45

Source: Survey results of 2022.

below.

The Cronbach’s alpha reliability statistics estimate of all prognosticators and changing results were determined, as shown in Table 1. The calculated correlation of alpha for this study was found to be 0.997 for all different factors. As a result, the above-mentioned edge of reliability test result for all variables is greater than 0.7, which is statically important, and thus the data are reliable for carrying out this study.

3.2. Respondents’ Demographic Characteristics

According to

Table 2. Background information of the respondents.

Demographic Profile of Respondents
			Frequency	Percent	Cumulative Percent
Valid	Gender	Male	165	64.0	64.0
		Female	93	36.0	100.0
		Total	258	100.0
	Age	18–30	47	18.2	18.2
		31–40	96	37.2	55.4
		41–50	105	40.7	96.1
		Above 51	10	3.9	100
		Total	258	100
	Education level	Diploma	53	20.5	20.5
		First degree	64	24.8	45.3
		Master’s degree	87	33.7	79.1
		Above masters	54	20.9	100
		Total	258	100
	Work experience	No experiences	36	14	14
		1–5 years	88	34.1	48.1
		5–10 years	73	28.3	76.4
		More than 10 years	61	23.6	100
		Total	258	100

Source: Survey results of 2022.

, most of the participants in this study (64 percent) are male, indicating that male respondents are more active than female respondents. It’s also reasonable to deduce that the majority of the study’s participants are of working age or older (31–50 years old) and can provide authentic and accurate data. As a result, they may be able to make a significant contribution to our inquiry. In terms of education, most respondents graduated from a university or college. This could be reflected in the study participants’ capacity to evaluate the questionnaires and respond accurately. In terms of their experiences, most of the participants spent a significant amount of time at their workplace office. As a result, the study’s participants had enough expertise to respond to the study questionnaires and describe their surroundings in greater depth.

3.3. Bottled Water Uses

As shown in

Table 3. Frequency of bottled water used, brand, and disposal of an empty bottle.

Questions for Bottled Water Users
			Frequency	Percent	Cumulative Percent
Valid	How often do you purchase bottled water	Never	23	8.9	8.9
		0–1 times/week	59	22.9	31.8
		2–3 times/week	112	43.4	75.2
		4–5 times/week	48	18.6	93.8
		6 and above times/week	16	6.2	100
		Total	258	100
	Which brand of water do you prefer?	Ambo Mineral Water	61	23.6	23.6
		Yes	67	26	49.6
		Aqua Addis	71	27.5	77.1
		Aqua Safe	59	22.9	100
		Total	258	100
	After drinking bottled water, how would you deal with the empty bottle most of the time?	Put it in the rubbish bin	77	29.8	29.8
		Reuse	29	11.2	41.1
		Dispose of anywhere	152	58.9	100
		Total	258	100

Source: 2022 survey results.

, respondents were asked about their frequency of use of bottled water per week. Accordingly, most of the study participants are moderate users of bottled water i.e., 43.4% of the respondents were using 2–3 bottles of water per week. Respondents were also asked about their preferences for the bottled water brands and as shown in the above Table 3, “Aqua Addis” and “Yes” brands are more preferred than “Ambo Mineral Water” and “Aqua Safe” water. This doesn’t mean that the latter brands are not preferred, as a modest percentage of respondents (23.6% and 22.9%, respectively) prefer it. As indicated in Table 3, the other question raised for respondents is about the disposal of bottled water after use. The results indicate that the majority of respondents (58.9%) agree that plastic bottles are thrown everywhere after being used and a moderate number of the users put the used plastic bottles in a bin; whereas very few users (11.2%) reuse the plastic bottles.

In

Table 4. Bottled water purchase encouragement.

Which of the Following Changes on Bottled Water Would Encourage You to Purchase Bottled Water? (You Can Choose More than One Answer)
		Frequency	Percent	Cumulative Percent
Valid	Lowering the price with more attractive packaging	53	20.5	20.5
	Lowering the price with more environmentally friendly packaging	57	22.1	42.6
	Lowering the price with better quality	63	24.4	67.1
	Lowering the price with better quality, more attractive packaging, and more environmentally friendly packaging	85	32.9	100
	Total	258	100

Source: 2022 survey results.

above, respondents were asked to specify what encourages the users of plastic bottled water to buy or use it. Accordingly, per the results shown in the table, lower price, quality product, and attractive package encourages users to purchase plastic bottled water, i.e., 32.9% responded that any change in the three features (lowering price, environmentally friendly packaging, and improved quality) could be a motivator for purchasing bottled water. This implies that any improvement in the current pricing strategy of bottled water, product quality, or design for environmentally friendly packaging increases the sale of bottled water in the study area.

As the results in the

Table 5. Bottled water dimensions.

Descriptive Statistics
	N	Mean	Std. Deviation
Bottled water causes great environmental problems—the empty bottles are wasted	258	4.0814	1.15575
The quality of bottled water may not be better than tap water	258	2.2016	1.39136
Tap water in Ethiopia is safe enough to drink directly	258	2.2054	1.19681
Bottled water is being commercialized	258	3.2597	1.28989
Bottled water is becoming more popular	258	3.1124	1.60221
It is inconvenient to prepare my bottle of water	258	4.1899	1.02059
When I buy bottled water, I won’t consider its effect on the environment	258	3.155	1.31113
Valid N (listwise)	258

Source: 2022 survey results.

above show the mean score of the items “bottled water causes great environmental problems; bottled water is being commercialized; bottled water is becoming more popular; inconvenient to prepare own bottle of water” are above the average and mean score for items “tap water in Ethiopia is safe enough to drink directly and the quality of bottled water may not be better than tap water” are below average. The above-average value indicates that consumers believe bottled water is still superior to pure tap water. As a result, we can conclude that consumers place a higher value on bottled water than on tap water.

3.4. Reverse Logistics Activities

Standard logistics activities include systems used by an organization to collect worn, damaged, undesired (stock balancing returns), or obsolete product lines, as well as packaging and distribution equipment, from the end-user or distributor. When a product comes to an organization, there are a variety of disposal options to consider, including the following RL process operations.

The results of above

Table 6. Reverse Logistic Activities.

Reverse Logistics Activities			Responses
	N	Mean	Std. D
Extent to remanufacturing:
Set up remanufacturing workshops	258	2.1822	0.91345
Set up warehouses for used plastic bottles	258	2.5000	1.12021
The city has a network linkage with Local Manufacture	258	2.3178	0.75356
Extent to reuse:
Set quality standards for reuse	258	2.6667	1.30150
Inspecting and sorting for reuse	258	2.4845	1.22306
The extent of disposal uses and waste material:
Landfilling	258	2.8217	1.09081
Incineration	258	3.9264	1.03556
Direct sales/Secondhand market/for used	258	2.7868	1.06094
Valid N (listwise)	258

Source: 2022 survey results.

showed the average mean and standard deviations of the variables for reverse logistics activities. According to Pihie L. et al. [54], the mean score below 3.39 was considered low, the mean score from 3.40 up to 3.79 was considered moderate, and the mean score above 3.8 was considered high. Based on this information, all the above results except incineration are less than the cutoff point or above the average. Thus, the finding seems to specify that the company largely practices incineration, and the organization gave little attention to waste management processes other than incineration.

3.5. Drivers of Reverse Logistics Activities

The results detailed in

Table 7. Extent of drivers to implementing RL.

	Responses
Drivers of Reverse Logistics Activities	N	Mean	Std. D
The extent of economic drivers to RL:
Decreasing the cost of new raw material	258	3.8721	1.00733
Increase profitability and enhance stock availability	258	2.5969	1.22566
Increase in customer satisfaction, loyalty	258	3.3023	1.23883
RL Processes and extents of Legislation for recovering:
Role of government rule and regulations	258	3.4147	1.24542
Company manual and policy	258	3.9922	0.99412
Professional ethics	258	3.8372	1.30423
Extent of CSR:
Values or principles that an organization holds to be responsible with RL (Socially responsible)	258	2.8798	1.33390
Establish the image of an environmentally responsible organization.	258	3.0116	1.19494
Valid N (listwise)	258

Source: 2022 survey results.

show that the average mean and standard deviations for the drivers of practicing reverse logistics activities. Based on this information, the above results show that decreasing the cost of new raw materials, government rules and regulations, company manual and policy, and professional ethics have a mean score greater than the cutoff point or above the average which means that all variables have a significant contribution for reverse logistics activities in recycling used plastic bottled water waste management while the other items have less contribution to driving RL activities as the variables have a mean score below the average/cutoff points.

3.6. Reverse Logistics and its Challenges

Reverse logistics, according to Badenhorst, A., and J. D. Nel [55], is a complex process and a specialist part of any supply chain by its very nature. So, the following are some of the obstacles that a corporation could face when implementing RL. As a result, the table below depicts the sampled respondents’ perceptions of barriers to implementing RL for the organization, as well as the results gained.

According to the results in the above

Table 8. Extent of challenges in implementing RL.

The Extent of Challenges in Implementing RL	Responses
	N	Mean	Std. D
Financial barriers on reverse logistic	258	3.8992	1.08291
High cost related to reverse logistics	258	3.1085	1.30989
Return dynamics and forecasting complexity	258	2.8643	1.44450
Lack of expertise in reverse logistics	258	3.2132	1.07188
Top management commitment and management style	258	3.6705	0.98034
Lack of functional integration	258	4.0930	1.02073
Poor communication and cooperation with supply chain partners such as Local manufacturer	258	3.3915	1.25605
Valid N (listwise)	258

Source: 2022 survey results.

, the items listed as a challenge for the implementation of reverse logistics activities include lack of functional integration, financial constraints to reverse logistics, managerial support and leadership style, poor teamwork and communication with supply chain members such as local manufacturers, and product quality control problems are the major challenges in implementing RL in the firm since they have a mean score greater than an average value (3.90%, 3.67%, 4.09%, and 3.39%, respectively).

Based on this analysis, one can conclude that top senior management’s responsibility and consideration in implementing RL at Ambo University and Ambo city is essential, as it is already avoiding the negative mindset with regard to various products to create an encompassing RL plan with conservative logistical issues. Furthermore, the results of the explanatory interview revealed that the RL process is fraught with difficulties. In Ambo city, the number of people living in cities has grown in recent years. Therefore, the amount of waste generated in the city has also increased over time. Because of the city’s growing population, the town is unable to serve all its residents, and the municipality is currently experiencing challenges in providing efficient municipal waste disposal. Another significant reason is that the city’s municipal government has inadequate economic, financial, technological, and human resources. The findings of the study by [15,56] also supports the findings of this specific survey.

3.7. Mechanisms to Improve Reverse Logistics

This section contains questions about procedures for improving reverse logistics activities where respondents are asked the extent of their agreement on the statements listed in the following table.

The data shown in the above

Table 9. Reverse logistics improvement: Extent of elements to improve.

The Extent of RL to Improve	Responses
	N	Mean	Std. D
Top management commitment to reverse logistics	258	3.2481	1.25087
formation and engagement of supply chain partners as strategic partners in reverse logistics (especially to local manufacturers)	258	3.8256	1.31314
Adopt appropriate technologies for RL to perform	258	3.3527	1.22061
Conduct formal training in RL and attitude change to local remanufacture products	258	3.1938	1.38124
Outsourcing reverses logistics activities	258	2.2907	1.38249
Valid N (listwise)	258

Source: 2022 survey results.

presents reverse logistics improvement mechanisms. Accordingly, from the listed items, engagement of all stakeholders as a strategic partner of the reverse logistics system has a mean score of 3.83%, which is above average value. Formal training for local manufacturers and community, top management commitment, and adoption of technologies have a modest mean score, and outsourcing has a below-average mean score. Thus, it is concluded that community participation, training, technology adoption, and top management commitment have a significant impact on improving reverse logistics implementation.

Table 10. Reuse × Solid Waste Management.

Chi-Square Tests
	Value	Df	Asymptotic Significance (2-Sided)	Exact Sig. (2-Sided)	Exact Sig. (1-sided)	Point Probability
Pearson chi-square	253.999 a	1	0.000	0.000	0.000
Continuity Correction b	250.014	1	0.000
Likelihood Ratio	343.895	1	0.000	0.000	0.000
Fisher’s Exact Test				0.000	0.000
Linear-by-Linear Association	253.015 c	1	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
N of Valid Cases	258

Source: 2022 survey results. a. No cells (0.0%) have an expected count of less than five. The minimum expected count is 53.51. b. Computed only for a 2 × 2 table. c. The standardized statistic is 15.906.

depicts that the chi-square statistic appears to the right side of the “Pearson chi-Square” in the value column. In this case, the chi-square statistic has a value of 253.999. If this value is equal to or less than the designated alpha level, the result is significant (normally 0.05). In the “Asymptotic Significance (2-sided)” column, the p-value (0.000) appears in the same row. If p 0.05 is observed in all tests of significance, we can conclude the following variables have a statistically significant relationship. The chi-square output has a p-value of 0.000. This indicates that there is a substantial link between Reuse and Solid Waste Management. Simply put, the result is significant, and the evidence suggests that the variable is statistically significant. It would not normally be regarded as substantial (given an alpha level of 0.05, for example). Similarly, the Pearson chi-square test statistic (253.999) is insignificant. As a result, reuse and solid waste management are related throughout this case. From the findings of the study, it is evident that reuse is an effective way of managing solid wastes, and the findings suggest that local authorities should explore how waste management can be improved through reuse in terms of increasing operational efficiency.

The chi-square statistic appears in the Value column instantly to the right of “Pearson chi-square” in the results of

Table 11. Disposal × Solid Waste Management.

Chi-Square Tests
	Value	Df	Asymptotic Significance (2-Sided)	Exact Sig. (2-Sided)	Exact Sig. (1-Sided)	Point Probability
Pearson chi-square	86.574 a	2	0.000	0.000
Likelihood Ratio	118.666	2	0.000	0.000
Fisher’s Exact Test	110.638			0.000
Linear-by-Linear Association	85.457 b	1	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
N of Valid Cases	258

Source: 2022 survey results. a. No cells (0.0%) have an expected count of less than five. The minimum expected count is 8.62. b. The standardized statistic is 9.244.

. In this case, the chi-square statistic has a value of 86.574. If this result is equal to or less than the specified alpha level, the result is significant (normally 0.05). In the “Asymptotic Importance (2-sided)” column, the p-value (0.000) displays in the same row. If p 0.05 is obtained in all tests of significance, we can conclude that the two variables have a significant relation. The chi-square output has a p-value of 0.000.

This means that the relationship between disposal and solid waste management is significant. To put it simply, the result is significant, and the data suggest that the variables disposal and solid waste management are associated with each other. The above Table 11 also shows that the value of Fisher’s exact test statistic is 110.638. This results in a p-value of 0.000. Normally, this would not be considered significant (given an alpha level of 0.05, for example). The Pearson chi-square test statistic (86.574) similarly does not reach significance. Therefore, in this instance, there is an association between disposal and solid waste management. The results of this survey show that reducing disposal and reverse logistics, as well as solid waste management, can boost a company’s performance. This finding is likewise comparable to that of [57].

The chi-square statistic appears in the Value column directly to the right of “Pearson chi-square” in the findings of

Table 12. Economic drive × Solid Waste Management.

Chi-Square Tests
	Value	Df	Asymptotic Significance (2-Sided)	Exact Sig. (2-Sided)	Exact Sig. (1-Sided)	Point Probability
Pearson chi-square	65.761 a	2	0.000	0.000
Likelihood Ratio	91.070	2	0.000	0.000
Fisher’s Exact Test	83.446			0.000
Linear-by-Linear Association	65.416 b	1	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
N of Valid Cases	258

Source: 2022 survey results. a. No cells (0.0%) have an expected count of less than five. The minimum expected count is 7.71. b. The standardized statistic is 8.088.

. The chi-square statistic has a value of 65.761 in this situation. If this number is equal to or less than the prescribed alpha level, the result is significant (normally 0.05). In the “Asymptotic Significance (2-sided)” column, the p-value (0.000) appears in the same row. If p 0.05 is obtained in all tests of significance, we can conclude that the two variables have a statistically significant association. The chi-square output has a p-value of 0.000. This implies that there is a considerable link between economic drive and solid waste management. Simply put, the outcome is significant, and the data indicates that the variables economic drive and solid waste management are associated with each other. The above Table 12 also shows that the value of Fisher’s exact test statistic is 83.446. This results in a p-value of 0.000. Normally this would not be considered significant (given an alpha level of 0.05, for example). The Pearson chi-square test statistic (65.761) similarly does not reach significance. As a result, there is a link between economic motivation and solid waste management in this case. From the results of this survey, reverse logistics and solid waste management contribute to economic growth and improved company performance, and this finding is consistent with the findings [58,59] that show recycling efficiency has a positive impact on economic performance. Economic reasons, marketing aims, and company objectives are among the value drivers from this perspective.

According to the results presented in

Table 13. Legislation drive × Solid Waste Management.

Chi-Square Tests
	Value	Df	Asymptotic Significance (2-Sided)	Exact Sig. (2-Sided)	Exact Sig. (1-Sided)	Point Probability
Pearson chi-square	99.744 a	1	0.000	0.000	0.000
Continuity Correction b	97.080	1	0.000
Likelihood Ratio	130.916	1	0.000	0.000	0.000
Fisher’s Exact Test				0.000	0.000
Linear-by-Linear Association	99.358 c	1	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
N of Valid Cases	258

Source: 2022 survey results. a. No cells (0.0%) have an expected count of less than five. The minimum expected count is 37.19. b. Computed only for a 2 × 2 table. c. The standardized statistic is 9.968.

, the chi-square data point in the value column stands to the right of “Pearson chi-square.” Inside this instance, the chi-square statistic has a value of 99.744. In the “Exponential growth Significance (2-sided)” column, the p-value (0.000) appears in the same row. If p is 0.05 in all tests of significance, we can conclude that there is a statistically meaningful relationship between the independent variables. The chi-square output has a p-value of 0.000. This implies that there is a meaningful correlation between legislative action drive and proper waste disposal. Simply stated, the finding is important, and the data indicates that the variables legislative action drive and proper waste disposal are related. The value of Fisher’s exact test statistic, which results in a p-value of.000, is also shown in Table 13. This would not normally be regarded as important (given an alpha level of 0.05, for example). Similarly, the Pearson chi-square test statistic (99.744) does not attain statistical significance. As a result, there is a link between legislative drive and solid waste management in this case. According to this survey, the legislative drive aids in the improvement of waste management to boost company performance. This study’s findings are consistent with [58,60,61], which suggested that businesses are affected by regulatory and environmental legislation.

The chi-square statistic would seem in the value column right portion of “Pearson chi-square” in the result shown in

Table 14. Social Responsibility × Solid Waste Management.

Chi-Square Tests
	Value	Df	Asymptotic Significance (2-Sided)	Exact Sig. (2-Sided)	Exact Sig. (1-Sided)	Point Probability
Pearson chi-square	146.426 a	2	0.000	0.000
Likelihood Ratio	172.790	2	0.000	0.000
Fisher’s Exact Test	167.669			0.000
Linear-by-Linear Association	135.863 b	1	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
N of Valid Cases	258

Source: 2022 survey results. a. No cells (0.0%) have an expected count of less than five. The minimum expected count is 8.62. b. The standardized statistic is 11.656.

. In this scenario, the chi-square statistic has a value of 146.426. If this factor is close to which is less than the specified alpha level, the correlation is significant (normally 0.05). In the “Asymptotic Significance (2-sided)” column, the p-value (0.000) appears in the same row. If p 0.05 is considered statistically significant, we can conclude that there is still a statistically meaningful relationship between the independent variables. The chi-square output has a p-value of 0.000. This demonstrates that there is a strong correlation between social responsibility and solid waste disposal. Simply put, the conclusion is significant, and the data indicates that the variables of social responsibility and corporate performance are related. The value of Fisher’s exact test statistic is 167.669, as shown in Table 14. A p-value of 0.000 is obtained because of this. This would not normally be regarded as important (given an alpha level of 0.05, for example). Similarly, the Pearson chi-square test value (146.426) does not approach statistical significance. As a result, there is a link between social responsibility and solid waste management in this case. According to this survey, social responsibility improves a company’s performance [62,63].

4. Discussion

Plastic waste management is expected to grow in importance in developing countries undergoing various economic advancements and rapid urbanization. Accordingly, this research stressed the importance of recycling to the development of long-term plastic waste management systems. The results indicate that most Ambo inhabitants (43.4 percent) are moderate users of bottled water at work or home. According to the findings of this survey, most inhabitants discard of empty water bottles in any place, and just a few respondents stated that they burnt rubbish in certain locations of the city to dispose of the gathered waste. Furthermore, the findings of insightful interviewers suggest that bottled water consumers can dispose of empty bottles in any place, with only a few placing them in waste collection receptacles. Uncontrolled garbage has a huge impact on urban air pollution as a result. The statistics gathered here are alarming, showing how uncaring Ambo town residents are about the environment. Thus, it is possible to conclude that the most challenging issues that the town faces are inappropriate municipal solid waste management and lack of RL activities. The conclusions of this study are in line with those of other researchers who have investigated the same problem, such as Mwanza et al. [64] and Sellitto, M. [65].

The benefits of reverse logistics systems and recycling can be long-term, and they can provide several solutions to the waste management issues that developing economies face. Incorporating RL into the waste management system can reduce the volume of landfill, minimize collection and energy costs, reduce waste, and improve job prospects for people involved in the recovery process. As a result, the evidence appears to indicate that organizations engage in RL activities by inspecting and sorting the used plastic bottles for reuse. According to the findings of this study, incineration is one of the disposal techniques for plastic waste management. The findings of a study conducted by Kinobe, J. R. et al. [15] on “Reverse logistics system and recycling potential at a landfill” support these findings.

It is critical to identify the appropriate players in treatment programs to maximize the rehabilitation of plastic waste management systems (PSWs). The current waste management strategy is deemed inefficient, according to a conversation with city residents, because of the poor collection, a lack of vessel provision, and unlawful dumping. There is evidence that informal characters play a significant role in garbage collection, particularly in recyclable material, which the city authorities cannot handle. Most of the people in Ambo illegally discarded rubbish in public locations, rivers, and ditches. To ensure long-term recovery in developing economies, it is critical to explore informal actors in recycling plastic wastes and reverse logistics networks. As a result, the study indicates that more collaboration between formal and informal actors would lead to a more sustainable and cleaner city. The result of our investigation is supported by several research findings [8,9,13,66,67,68].

Plastic bottle waste has steadily increased, according to the information gathered from key informants during interviews with Ambo Town residents. According to their responses, the lack of clear legislation requiring the recovery or return of plastic waste for remanufacturing or reuse is one of the reasons for the rise in plastic waste in the town. Additionally, the findings of the survey revealed a lack of knowledge about how to properly dispose of waste, particularly used plastic bottles. Furthermore, the study’s findings demonstrate that organizations and individuals have shown less dedication to social responsibility as a driving factor for reverse logistics activity adoption. The study’s findings are consistent with those of [22,46]. According to the conclusions of this study, the combined effect of internal voluntary and externally imposed laws and regulations that drive reverse logistics of bottlers is critical. Other research results [15] backed up the conclusions of the study.

5. Conclusions

This study aimed to investigate the role of reverse logistics in recycling used plastic bottled water waste management in Ethiopia. Thus, based on the findings of the research, the authors point out the following conclusions.

Regarding the implementation of reverse logistics activities regarding used plastic water bottles, the results of the study show that most plastic bottled water users dump empty bottles in places such as roadsides, public places, in rivers, and ditches. Moreover, the findings of the investigation showed that rather than reusing, recycling, and remanufacturing; the municipality mostly used incineration as a regular activity to dispose of the used plastic bottles. This indicates that reverse logistics activities are not fully practiced in the study area. Hence, it is recommended that the municipal government is anticipating work on the notion of public–private collaboration, and both print and electronic media must be used to enhance people’s awareness of the appropriate reuse, recycling, and remanufacturing of used plastic bottles. Concerning motivating factors that drive the implementation of reverse logistics activities, the results of the study showed that business organizations are economically motivated to practice reverse logistics in the disposal of used plastic bottles when compared to socially responsible legislation. Furthermore, the government’s involvement in the disposal of plastic bottles is very low. In conclusion, the motivating factor to implement reverse logistics activities in a business organization is economic, i.e., less attention was given to corporate social responsibility and legislation regarding used plastic bottle waste management. According to the study result, the major challenges to implementing reverse logistics are a lack of functional integration, financial constraints, lack of upper management commitment, poor teamwork, and communication with supply chain members such as local manufacturers, used plastic bottle collectors, and end-users.

In nutshell, plastic waste is becoming a global concern as the huge increase in waste plastics has caused harm to our environment and health. Recycling plastic waste is more environmentally friendly than incineration or landfilling, thus, a systematic and scientific approach to plastic waste disposal, such as the implementation of reverse logistics activities to recycle plastic waste, is recommended to protect the lives of environmental residents.

6. Limitations and Future Research Suggestions

Even though these findings should be interpreted with caution, this study had a few limitations. Firstly, because the variables in the study were measured all at once, this study is cross-sectional, so there may be a need for additional attention to other causes. However, we attempted to poll the study’s sample on the overall and exhaustive analysis of variables over a significant period. As a result, future studies should concentrate on this perspective by designing longitudinal studies to obtain more accurate and quantifiable results. Second, the original study community and sample were limited to only academic employees of Ambo University and employees of Ambo municipality, and thus the incorporation of other sectors may contribute to more significant results. As a result, future scholars will concentrate on trying to incorporate other sectors as well. Finally, because the investigators intended to report the current situation in the fields of study, they used only descriptive statistical tools to demonstrate the contribution of the reverse logistics process. As a result, future research could focus on the confined logistics system of sustainable design in conjunction to the present investigative framework.