The Compactness of Non-Compacted Urban Developments: A Critical Review on Sustainable Approaches to Automobility and Urban Sprawl
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Automobility and Modeling Modern City-Planning Theories
2.1. Pedigree between City-Planning Theories and Automobility
2.2. Criticism of City-Planning Theories Based on Zoning
3. Automobility as a Phenomenon
3.1. Private Car Dependency
3.2. Economic and Environmental Problems of the Automobile
3.3. The Automobile and City Sprawl
4. Tackling Automobility
4.1. Sustainable Urban Approaches: The Compact City, Free-Carbon Eco-City, and the Ubiquitous City
4.1.1. Compact City
4.1.2. Free-Carbon City
4.1.3. The Ubiquitous Eco-City
4.2. Public and Governmental Policies Relevant to Traffic
4.2.1. Policies Interrelated to Traffic Congestion
4.2.2. Policies Aimed at Improving the Environment
5. Endeavors Assessment
6. Discussion: Compactness of Non-Compacted Developments
7. Conclusions
- Dependence on private cars would automatically fall;
- Time lost during daily motorized travel (due to congestion) would diminish;
- The social relationships between residents would improve because they would be working and living in the same area;
- Public transport would be more comfortable since fewer regular employees would be using it during peak hours;
- Reducing the use of non-renewable oil, and hence lowering GHG and helping solve the problem of climate change;
- Residents would be encouraged to walk between their jobs and homes, enhancing their physical fitness.
- In addition, there is the potential to increase the green space to a built area ratio and create compact communities due to a decrease the parking areas.
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Egger, S. Determining a sustainable city model. J. Environ. Model. Softw. 2006, 21, 1235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- UNFPA. 2013. Available online: http://www.unfpa.org (accessed on 26 December 2013).
- UN-Habitat. Challenge of Slums Global Report on Human Settlements 2003; United Nations Human Settlements Programme; Earthscan Publications Ltd.: London, UK, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Dulal, H.B.; Akbar, S. Greenhouse gas emission reduction options for cities: Finding the “Coincidence of Agendas” between local priorities and climate change mitigation objectives. J. Habitat Int. 2013, 38, 100–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Whitehead, M. (Re)Analysing the Sustainable City: Nature, Urbanisation and the Regulation of Socio-environmental Relations in the UK. Urban Stud. 2003, 40, 1183–1206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lehmann, S. The Principles of Green Urbanism: Transforming the City for Sustainability; Earthscan: London, UK, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Sietchiping, R.; Permezel, M.J.; Ngomsi, C. Transport and mobility in sub-Saharan African cities: An overview of practices, lessons and options for improvements. Cities 2012, 29, 183–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Awuah, K.G.B.; Hammond, F.N.; Lamond, J.E.; Booth, C. Benefits of urban land use planning in Ghana. Geoforum 2014, 51, 37–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roy, M. Planning for sustainable urbanisation in fast growing cities: Mitigation and adaptation issues addressed in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Habitat Int. 2009, 33, 276–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McGrath, B.; Pickett, S.T.A. The Metacity: A Conceptual Framework for Integrating Ecology and Urban Design. Challenges 2011, 2, 55–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- UN-Habitat. Urbanization: Mega & Metacities, New City States; UN-Habitat: State of the World’s Cities 2006/7; United Nations: New York, NY, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Hassan, A.M.; Lee, H. Toward the sustainable development of urban areas: An overview of global trends in trials and policies. Land Use Policy 2015, 48, 199–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hassan, A.M.; Lee, H. The paradox of the sustainable city: Definitions and examples. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2015, 17, 1267–1285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Howley, P.; Scott, M.; Redmond, D. An examination of residential preferences for less sustainable housing: Exploring future mobility among Dublin central city residents. Cities 2009, 26, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vos, J.D.; Witlox, F. Transportation policy as spatial planning tool; reducing urban sprawl by increasing travel costs and clustering infrastructure and public transportation. J. Transp. Geogr. 2013, 33, 117–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hassan, A.M.; Lee, H.; Yoo, U. Evaluation of the contemporary urban design through the classic urban theories: Cairo and Gwangju downtown as a case study. HBRC J. 2014, 10, 327–338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weston, R. 100 Ideas that Changed Architecture; Laurence king publishing Ltd.: London, UK, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- TCPA Re-Imagining Garden Cities for the 21st Century: Benefits and Lessons in Bringing forward Comprehensively Planned New Communities. London: Town and Country Planning Association. 2011. Available online: http://www.tcpa.org.uk/data/files/reimagining_garden_cities_final.pdf (accessed on 4 January 2014).
- Clark, B. Ebenezer Howard and the Marriage of Town and Country: An Introduction to Howard’s Garden Cities of To-morrow (Selections). Organ. Environ. 2003, 16, 87–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Phillips, R.A. The Impact of Garden City Movement in Early Modern Town Planning. Unpublished. Master’s Thesis, Department of Geography, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada, 1977. Available online: http://summit.sfu.ca/item/2894 (accessed on 4 January 2014).
- Ćorović, D. The Garden City Concept: From Theory to Implementation. 2009. Available online: http://saj.rs/uploads/1%202009%20clanci/DCorovic.pdf (accessed on 4 January 2014).
- Shaw, W. Broadacre City: American and Technological Society. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Department of Architecture, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, 2009. Available online: https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1794/10177/Shaw_William_R_ma2009fa.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed on 4 January 2014).
- Metcalf, M. Broadacre: A New Community Plan. 2010. Available online: http://faculty.arch.utah.edu/ruegemer/classes/2010_Fallseminar/downloads/2010_Essays.pdf (accessed on 4 January 2014).
- Tungare, A. Le Corbusier’s Principles City Planning and Their Application in Virtual Environments. Unpublished. Master’s Thesis, School of Architecture, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada, 2001. Available online: http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp04/MQ61319.pdf (accessed on 4 January 2014).
- Steyn, G. Le Corbusier’s Town-Planning Ideas and the Ideas of History. SAJAH 2012, 27, 83–106, ISSN 0258-3542. Available online: http://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/21479/Steyn_LeCorbusier(2012).pdf?sequence=1 (accessed on 4 January 2014).
- Mitpress.mit. The Automobile in Le Corbusier’s Ideal Cities. 2014. Available online: http://mitpress.mit.edu/sites/default/files/titles/content/9780262015363_sch_0001.pdf (accessed on 4 January 2014).
- Sonne, W. Dwelling in the metropolis: Reformed urban blocks 1890–1940 as a model for the sustainable compact city. Prog. Plan. 2009, 72, 53–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kostritsky, G. The Neighborhood Concept: An Evaluation. Unpublished. Master’s Thesis, Department of City and Regional Planning, School of Architecture, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1952. Available online: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/9592371.pdf (accessed on 9 August 2022).
- Moudon, A.V.; Lee, C.; Cheadle, A.D.; Garvin, C.; Johnson, D.; Schmid, T.L.; Weathers, R.D.; Lin, L. Operational Definitions of Walkable Neighborhood: Theoretical and Empirical Insights. J. Phys. Act. Health 2006, 3 (Suppl. 1), S99–S117. Available online: http://activelivingresearch.org/files/JPAH_7_Moudon.pdf (accessed on 4 January 2014). [CrossRef]
- Rofe, Y. Space and Community—The Spatial Foundations of Urban Neighborhoods: An Evaluation of Three Theories of Urban Form and Social Structure and Their Relevance to the Issue of Neighborhoods. Berkeley Plan. J. 1995, 10. Available online: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/8691z2bp (accessed on 4 January 2014). [CrossRef]
- Patricios, N.N. Urban Design Principles of the Original Neighborhood Concepts. Urban Morphol. J. 2002, 6, 21–32. Available online: http://www.urbanform.org/online_unlimited/pdf2002/200261_21-32.pdf (accessed on 4 January 2014).
- Wang, C. An Elevation of Perry’s Neighborhood Unit Concept: A Case Study in the Renfrew Heights Area of Vancouver, B. C. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 1965. Available online: https://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/id/134598/UBC_1965_A6_7%20W3.pdf (accessed on 4 January 2014).
- Brody, J. Constructing Professional Knowledge: The Neighborhood Unit Concept in the Community Builders Handbook. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA, 2009. Available online: https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/14704/Brody_Jason.pdf?sequence=2 (accessed on 5 January 2014).
- Jacobs, J. The Death and Life of Great American Cities; Penguin Books: Middlesex, UK, 1961. [Google Scholar]
- Hassan, A.M.; Lee, H. Controversial Issues Relevant to Sustainable Urbanism: A Review of Global Urban Tendencies. Eur. J. Sustain. Dev. Res. 2018, 2, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nevens, F.; Frantzeskaki, N.; Gorissen, L.; Loorbach, D. Urban Transition Labs: Co-creating transformative action for sustainable cities. J. Clean. Prod. 2013, 50, 111–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saberi, B. The role of the automobile industry in the economy of developed countries. Int. Robot. Autom. J. 2018, 4, 179–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Norcliffe, G. Neoliberal mobility and its discontents: Working tricycles in China’s cities. City Cult. Soc. 2011, 2, 235–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lau, J.C.-Y. Sustainable urban transport planning and the commuting patterns of poor workers in a historic inner city in Guangzhou, China. Habitat Int. 2013, 39, 119–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wei, J.; Xia, W.; Guo, X.; Marinova, D. Urban transportation in Chinese cities: An efficiency assessment. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2013, 23, 20–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Day, K.; Alfonzo, M.; Chen, Y.; Guo, Z.; Lee, K.K. Overweight, obesity, and inactivity and urban design in rapidly growing Chinese cities. Health Place 2013, 21, 29–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Misser, F. Angola Too Fast for Comfort. 2014. Available online: http://www.oecd.org/countries/angola/41922195.pdf (accessed on 5 January 2014).
- Pushak, N.; Foster, V. Angola’s Infrastructure: A Continental Perspective. Policy Research Working Paper (5813), The World Bank, Africa Region, Sustainable Development Unit. 2011. Available online: http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-5813 (accessed on 5 January 2014).
- Premalatha, M.; Tauseef, S.M.; Abbasi, T.; Abbasi, S.A. The promise and the performance of the world’s first two zero carbon eco-cities. J. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013, 25, 660–669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- OICA. 2013. Available online: http://www.oica.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/pc-wviu.pdf (accessed on 27 December 2013).
- Al-Fouzan, S.A. Using car parking requirements to promote sustainable transport development in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Cities 2012, 29, 201–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Multiguide. 2013. Available online: http://www.multiguide.com/index.php/parking-market.html (accessed on 27 December 2013).
- Gwilliam, K. Cities on the move—Ten years after. Res. Transp. Econ. J. 2013, 40, 3–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dong, L.; Gu, F.; Fujita, T.; Hayashi, Y.; Gao, J. Uncovering opportunity of low-carbon city promotion with industrial system innovation: Case study on industrial symbiosis projects in China. Energy Policy 2014, 65, 388–397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morar, T.; Bertolini, L. Planning for Pedestrians: A Way Out of Traffic Congestion. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 2013, 81, 600–608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Song, Y. Ecological City and Urban Sustainable Development. Procedia Eng. 2011, 21, 142–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Colmenar-Santos, A.; Borge-Diez, D.; Ortega-Cabezas, P.M.; Míguez-Camiña, J.V. Macro economic impact, reduction of fee deficit and profitability of a sustainable transport model based on electric mobility. Case study: City of León (Spain). Energy J. 2013, 65, 303–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Hinti, I.; Al-Ghandoor, A.; Akash, B.; Abu-Nada, E. Energy savings and CO2 mitigations through restructuring Jordan’s transportation sector: The diesel passenger cars scenario. J. Energy Policy 2007, 35, 5003–5011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ritter, M. Corinair 1994 Inventory; Topic Report no. 8/1997 Prepared by European Environment Agency; Office for Official Publications of the European Communities: Copenhagen, Denmark; Luxembourg, 1998; pp. 29–30. ISBN 92-9167-102-9. Available online: http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-9167-102-9 (accessed on 31 January 2014).
- EPA Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2012. 2013. Available online: http://www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/fetrends/1975-2012/420r13001.pdf (accessed on 28 December 2013).
- Yang, L.; Li, Y. Low-carbon City in China. J. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2013, 9, 62–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nechyba, T.J.; Walsh, R.P. Urban Sprawl. J. Econ. Perspect. 2004, 18, 177–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, J.R.; Morris, E.A.; Taylor, B.D. Planning for Cars in Cities: Planners, Engineers, and Freeways in the 20th Century. Am. Plan. Assoc. 2009, 75, 161–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- LLaw, M.J. Cars, driving, landscape, and the architectural gaze. J. Hist. Geogr. 2013, 41, 86–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dujardin, S.; Marique, A.F.; Tellerb, J. Spatial planning as a driver of change in mobility and residentialenergy consumption. J. Energy Build. 2014, 68, 779–785. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oktay, D. Human Sustainable Urbanism: In Pursuit of Ecological and Social-Cultural Sustainability. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 2012, 36, 16–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kolte, S.; Kandya, A.; Lakhtaria, K.; Patel, V.; Ghosh, P.; Singh, P.; Morabia, H. Evolving Sustainable Cities through the Fabric of Technological Transformation. Procedia Eng. 2013, 51, 480–486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grêt-Regamey, A.; Celio, E.; Klein, T.M.; Hayek, U.W. Understanding ecosystem services trade-offs with interactive procedural modeling for sustainable urban planning. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2013, 109, 107–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reiche, D. Renewable Energy Policies in the Gulf countries: A case study of the carbon-neutral ‘‘Masdar City’’ in Abu Dhabi. Energy Policy 2010, 38, 378–382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Elchalakani, M.; Aly, T.; Abu-Aisheh, E. Sustainable concrete with high volume GGBFS to build Masdar City in the UAE. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2014, 1, 10–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sgouridis, S.; Kennedy, S. Tangible and fungible energy: Hybrid energy market and currency system for total energy management. A Masdar City case study. Energy Policy 2010, 38, 1749–1758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Masdarconnect. Exploring Masdar City. 2013. Available online: http://www.masdarconnect.com/userfiles/files/Exploring-Masdar-City-Site-Tour-Booklet.pdf (accessed on 12 August 2013).
- Arthur, L. Masdar City: A Model of Urban Environmental Sustainability. Soc. Sci. 2012, 77–82. Available online: http://www.stanford.edu/group/journal/cgi-bin/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Lau_SocSci_2012.pdf (accessed on 28 March 2014).
- Nader, S. Paths to a low-carbon economy—The Masdar example. Energy Procedia 2009, 1, 3951–3958. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ho-Lee, S.; Hoon-Han, J.; Taik-Leem, Y.; Yigitcanlar, T. Towards ubiquitous city: Concept, planning, and experiences in the Republic of Korea. In Knowledge-Based Urban Development: Planning and Applications in the Information Era; Yigitcanlar, T., Velibeyoglu, K., Baum, S., Eds.; IGI Global, Information Science Reference: Hershey, PA, USA, 2008; pp. 148–169. [Google Scholar]
- Yigitcanlar, T.; Lee, S.H. Korean ubiquitous-eco-city: A smart-sustainable urban form or a branding hoax? Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang. 2014, 89, 100–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jung, H.-S.; Jeong, C.-S.; Lee, Y.-W.; Hong, P.-D. An Intelligent Ubiquitous Middleware for U-city: SmartUM. J. Inf. Sci. Eng. 2009, 25, 357–388. [Google Scholar]
- Inaba, J. Adaptation: Architecture, Technology, and the City. ISBN: 0615738737, 9780615738734. 2012, p. 7. Available online: http://www.inaba.us/project/adaptation-architecture-technology-and-city (accessed on 26 March 2014).
- Lindfield, M.; Steinberg, F. Green Cities; Asian Development Bank: Mandaluyong, Philippines, 2012; p. 86. Available online: http://www10.iadb.org/intal/intalcdi/PE/2012/10650.pdf (accessed on 26 March 2014).
- Kim, Y.M.; Kim, H.S.; Moon, S.Y.; Bae, S.Y. Ubiquitous Eco-City Planning in Korea. A Project for the Realization of Ecological City Planning and Ubiquitous Network Society. In Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Urban Planning, Region al Development and Information Society, Catalonia, Spain, 22–25 April 2009; pp. 925–930. Available online: http://programm.corp.at/cdrom2009/papers2009/CORP2009_174.pdf (accessed on 26 March 2014).
- Petersen, R.; Schafer, C. Modula 2a: Land Use Planning and Urban Transport. TZ Verlagsgesellschaft mbH: Germany. 2004. Available online: http://www.sutp.org/ (accessed on 28 December 2013).
- Hai, L.D. Influence of Asian Transport on Urban Transport Policy and Planning in Ha Noi, Vietnam; Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies: Tokyo, Japan, 2003; Volume 4. [Google Scholar]
- Jovanovic´, A.D.; Pamučar, D.S.; Pejčić-Tarle, S. Green vehicle routing in urban zones—A neuro-fuzzy approach. Expert Syst. Appl. 2014, 41, 3189–3203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, T.D.; Kockelman, K.M.; Hanna, J.P. Operations of a shared, autonomous, electric vehicle fleet: Implications of vehicle & charging infrastructure decisions. Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract. 2016, 94, 243–254. [Google Scholar]
- Kot, S. Carsharing concept implementation in relation to sustainability—Evidence from Poland. In Energy Transformation towards Sustainability; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2019; pp. 179–197. [Google Scholar]
- Machado, C.A.S.; De Salles Hue, N.P.M.; Berssaneti, F.T.; Quintanilha, J.A. An Overview of Shared Mobility. Sustainability 2018, 10, 4342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Borger, B.D.; Wuyts, B. The tax treatment of company cars, commuting and optimal congestion taxes. Transp. Res. 2011, 45, 1527–1544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gehlert, T.; Kramer, C.; Nielsen, O.A.; Schlag, B. Socioeconomic differences in public acceptability and car use adaptation towards urban road pricing. Transp. Policy 2011, 18, 685–694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thynell, M.; Mohan, D.; Tiwari, G. Sustainable transport and the modernisation of urban transport in Delhi and Stockholm. Cities 2010, 27, 421–429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shakibaei, S.; Alpkokin, P.; Gunduz, U. Oil Rich Countries and Sustainable Mobility: Challenges in Tabriz. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 2011, 20, 171–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lindholm, M. A sustainable perspective on urban freight transport: Factors affecting local authorities in the planning procedures. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 2010, 2, 6205–6216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Newman, P.W.G.; Kenworthy, J.R. Is There a Role for Physical Planners? J. Am. Plan. Assoc. 1992, 58, 353–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vallance, S.; Perkins, H.C.; Bowring, J.; Dixon, J.E. Almost Invisible: Glimpsing the City and its Residents in the Urban Sustainability Discourse. Urban Stud. 2011, 49, 1695–1710. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Neuman, M. The Compact City Fallacy. J. Plan. Educ. Res. 2005, 25, 11–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ståhle, A. More green space in a denser city: Critical relations between user experience and urban form. Urban Des. Int. 2010, 15, 47–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lehmann, S. Low-to-no carbon city: Lessons from western urban projects for the rapid transformation of Shanghai. Habitat Int. 2013, 37, 61–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Caprotti, F. Critical research on eco-cities? A walk through the Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City, China. Cities 2014, 36, 10–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gaspar, J.; Glaeser, E.L. Information Technology and the Future of Cities. J. Urban Econ. 1998, 43, 136–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCarthy, M.G.; Walter, L.K.; Hutchins, R.; Tong, R.; Keigan, M. Comparative Analysis of Motorcycle Accident Data from OTS and MAIDS. Published Project Report, TRL Limited. 2007. Available online: http://www.maids-study.eu/pdf/OTS_MAIDS_comparison.pdf (accessed on 28 December 2013).
- Passafaro, P.; Rimano, A.; Piccini, M.P.; Metastasio, R.; Gambardella, V.; Gullace, G.; Lettieri, C. The bicycle and the city: Desires and emotions versus attitudes, habits and norms. J. Environ. Psychol. 2014, 38, 76–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, P. Sustainable urban expansion and transportation in a growing megacity: Consequences of urban sprawl for mobility on the urban fringe of Beijing. Habitat Int. 2010, 34, 236–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paloheimo, E.; Salmi, O. Evaluating the carbon emissions of the low carbon city: A novel approach for consumer based allocation. Cities 2013, 30, 233–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Corbett, J.; Rebich, S. Richard Meier: Communications Theory of Urban Growth, 1961. 2014. Available online: http://www.csiss.org/classics/content/97 (accessed on 4 March 2014).
- Meijer, M.; Adriaens, F.; van der Linden, O.; Schik, W. A next step for sustainable urban design in the Netherlands. Cities 2011, 28, 536–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chang, H.-S.; Chiu, S.-L. Discussion on Sustainable Land use Allocation toward the Sustainable City–A Practice on Linco New Town. Procedia Environ. Sci. 2013, 17, 408–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Newman, P.W.G.; Kenworthy, J.R. Gasoline Consumption and Cities. J. Am. Plan. Assoc. 1989, 55, 24–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Initiative/Theory | Theorist | Planning Level | Date |
---|---|---|---|
The linear city |
|
|
|
The garden city theory and garden city of tomorrow |
|
|
|
The neighborhood Unit theory |
|
|
|
The Satellite cities theory |
|
|
|
The radiant city, or “Ville Radieuse” |
|
|
|
The superblock theory |
|
|
|
The theory of the Broadacre City |
|
|
|
Initiative/Theory | Pros | Cons/Challenges |
---|---|---|
1. The compact city |
|
|
2. The zero-carbon city |
|
|
3. The ubiquitous eco-city |
|
|
4. The use of light motorization and widening the urban streets to keep up with the transportation capacity |
|
|
5. Improvement of the public environment according to the fourth industrial revolution. |
|
|
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Alshammari, T.O.; Hassan, A.M.; Arab, Y.; Hussein, H.; Khozaei, F.; Saeed, M.; Ahmed, B.; Zghaibeh, M.; Beitelmal, W.; Lee, H. The Compactness of Non-Compacted Urban Developments: A Critical Review on Sustainable Approaches to Automobility and Urban Sprawl. Sustainability 2022, 14, 11121. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141811121
Alshammari TO, Hassan AM, Arab Y, Hussein H, Khozaei F, Saeed M, Ahmed B, Zghaibeh M, Beitelmal W, Lee H. The Compactness of Non-Compacted Urban Developments: A Critical Review on Sustainable Approaches to Automobility and Urban Sprawl. Sustainability. 2022; 14(18):11121. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141811121
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlshammari, Talal Obaid, Abbas M. Hassan, Yasser Arab, Heba Hussein, Fatemeh Khozaei, Maryam Saeed, Basma Ahmed, Manaf Zghaibeh, Wesam Beitelmal, and Hyowon Lee. 2022. "The Compactness of Non-Compacted Urban Developments: A Critical Review on Sustainable Approaches to Automobility and Urban Sprawl" Sustainability 14, no. 18: 11121. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141811121