How Non-Governmental-Organization-Built Small-Scale Irrigation Systems Are a Failure in Africa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Climate Change and Its Impact
2.2. Site Location and Climate
2.3. The Soils
2.4. The Population and Livelihood
2.5. Irrigation System Model
2.6. Equipment Inventory and Survey
2.7. Pumping Test on Wells
- Phase 1: Recovery. In this phase, it is necessary to stop the drawdown by users if it is in progress. Then, the ascent is followed with the help of a probe for at least 2 h. If the value of the ascent after 1 h is less than 1 cm, it is valid to simply select the static level (NS) for the value of the water level below the mark. Otherwise, it is necessary to continue the operation until 2 h have passed.
- Phase 2: Pumping. One should follow the descent of the water table during pumping using the probe at precise timesteps (every 10 min). The maximum pumping time is 3 h, and the well must be emptied until only a 1 m water layer remains. For the current study, solar pumps with an average flow rate of 2.44 m3/h were used. Because these pumps need sunshine, the recovery began at 9 a.m. to carry out the pumping between 11 a.m. and 2 p.m. This guaranteed a regularity of flow during pumping.
- Phase 3: Ascent. After the pumping is stopped, it is necessary to carefully measure the ascent for 2 h at given timesteps (every 10 min). Afterward, normal operation of the well can resume.
2.7.1. Determination of Mean Static Level Ns before the Pumping Test
2.7.2. The Piezometric Level Fluctuation Rate Coefficient, L (m/m), during the Complete Dry Season
2.7.3. Determination of the Specific Flow Rate Ce (m3/h/m)
2.7.4. The Well’s Daily Exploitable Volume of Water, Ve
Crop Yield Assessment
3. Results
3.1. Water Availability: Reality or Illusion?
3.2. The Adverse Impact of Climate and Clay
3.3. Surface Pumps Are Inappropriate for Extracting Water from Wells
3.4. Water Distribution: Reliable or Disillusion?
3.4.1. Inequity and Smallness of Plot Sizes
3.4.2. Difficulty of Water Extraction
3.4.3. Burdensome and Inefficient Water Distribution
3.4.4. A Poor Irrigation Service Leading to Low Production
3.4.5. Need for Reliable Water Resources
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Site Name | Longitude (DD) | Latitude (DD) | Annual Rainfall (mm) | Climate |
---|---|---|---|---|
Boussé (Niou) | 1.9407 W | 12.7720 N | 630 | Sudano-Sahelian |
Kouassanga | 1.3380 W | 12.6595 N | 600 | Sudano-Sahelian |
Ladwenda | 1.2602 W | 12.6443 N | 600 | Sudano-Sahelian |
Ramitenga | 1.3831 W | 12.5642 N | 600 | Sudano-Sahelian |
Louda | 1.0625 W | 13.0107 N | 500 | Sahelian |
Tangasgo | 1.0701 W | 13.1441 N | 510 | Sahelian |
IIyala | 1.1125 W | 13.2343 N | 530 | Sahelian |
Ansouri | 1.7607 W | 13.3087 N | 520 | Sahelian |
Rouni | 1.7548 W | 13.2913 N | 500 | Sahelian |
Raka | 1.6273 W | 13.1819 N | 500 | Sahelian |
Site | Climatic Zone | Number of Wells | Diameter D (m) | Depth P (m) (A) | Static Level NS (m) | Distance to Closest Dam (m) (B) | Subsoil | Test Flow Rate Q (m3/h) | CIEH Daily Expl. Water VE (A) (m3/day) | Observation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Niou | Sudano-Sahelian | 4 | 1.8 ± 0.0 | 10.9 ± 3.4 | 6.4 ± 0.4 | N.A. | Clayey | N.A. | N.A. | NS: 02/2019 |
Kouassanga | Sudano-Sahelian | 3 | 1.8 ± 0.0 | 7.5 ± 2.6 | N.A. | 300.0 | Clayey | N.A. | N.A. | NS: 02/2019 |
Ladwenda | Sudano-Sahelian | 3 | 1.8 ± 0.0 | 5.4 ± 1.2 | 3.5 ± 0.2 | 115.0 | Clayey | 0.1 ± 0.0 | 3.6 ± 1.1 | NS: 02/2019 |
Ramitenga | Sudano-Sahelian | 2 | 1.8 ± 0.0 | 7.0 ± 0.5 | 4.6 ± 0.4 | 250.0 | Clayey | 0.2 | 4.3 | NS: 02/2019 |
Louda | Sahelian | 3 | 1.8 | 10.0 | 6.4 ± 0.3 | 1060.0 | Sandy | 2.1 ± 0.5 | 6.1 ± 0.6 | NS: 02/2019 |
Tangasgo | Sahelian | 3 | 1.8 | 12.0 | 10.8 | N.A. | Clayey | 0.12 | 0.40 | NS: 02/2019 |
Ilyala | Sahelian | 3 | 1.8 | 12.0 | N.A. | 260.0 | Clayey | 0.0 | - | Pumping from a water stream |
Ansouri | Sahelian | 4 | 1.8 | 15 | N.A. | N.A. | Clayey | 2.4 | 0.0 | Empty after 1:30 pumping |
Rouni | Sahelian | 3 | 1.8 | 12 | N.A. | N.A. | Clayey | 2.4 | 3.6 ± 3.0 | Empty after 2:00 pumping |
Raka | Sahelian | 4 | 1.8 | 8 | N.A. | N.A. | Clayey | 2.4 | 2.3 ± 0.4 | Empty after 2:00 pumping |
Site | Season | Cycle (j) | No. Farmers | Plot Size (m²) | Prod Onion Bulb (kg) | Yield Onion Bulb (t/ha) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Niou | 2018–2019 | 150 | 12 | 128 ± 40 (a) | 433 ± 114 | 35 ± 8 |
Kouassanga | 2018–2019 | 150 | 12 | 282 ± 64 | 259 ± 93 | 21 ± 11 |
Ladwenda | 2018–2019 | 150 | 12 | 320 ± 0 | 765 ± 88 | 24 ± 3 |
Ramitenga | 2018–2019 | 150 | 12 | 140 ± 0 | 567 ± 85 | 41 ± 6 |
Louda | 2018–2019 | 150 | 10 | 120 ± 0 | 413 ± 150 | 34 ± 12 |
Tangasgo | 2018–2019 | 150 | 10 | 67 ± 0 | 159 ± 86 | 24 ± 13 |
Ilyala | 2018–2019 | 150 | 10 | 120 ± 0 | 279 ± 91 | 23 ± 8 |
Ansouri | 2018–2019 | 150 | 10 | 41 ± 14 | 91 ± 23 | 23 ± 8 |
Rouni | 2018–2019 | 150 | 11 | 44 ± 19 | 73 ± 24 | 19 ± 7 |
Raka | 2018–2019 | 150 | 12 | 135 ± 37 | 270 ± 96 | 20 ± 6 |
Irrigation Scheme (a) | No. of Waterpoints | Thickness of Alterations (b) (m) | Drilled Depth DD (m) | Positive Borehole (%) | Water Inflow Depth VInf (m) | Estimated Flow (m3/h) | Test Flow (c) (m3/h) | Vicinity of Surf. Water (d) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Niou | 14 | 54 ± 12 | 67 ± 08 | 64% | 35 ± 28 | 03 ± 03 | 02 ± 02 | No |
Boussé | 15 | 32 ± 12 | 57 ± 18 | 53% | 18 ± 18 | 02 ± 02 | 00 ± 01 | Yes |
Kouassanga | 18 | 18 ± 07 | 58 ± 14 | 50% | 16 ± 18 | 05 ± 15 | 01 ± 01 | Yes |
Ladwenda | 15 | 18 ± 06 | 57 ± 10 | 60% | 25 ± 23 | 01 ± 02 | 01 ± 01 | Yes |
Ramitenga | 8 | 26 ± 11 | 60 ± 16 | 50% | 22 ± 29 | 01 ± 01 | 00 ± 01 | Yes |
Louda | 16 | 25 ± 13 | 59 ± 14 | 69% | 30 ± 23 | 03 ± 04 | 00 ± 00 | Yes |
Tangasgo | 24 | 23 ± 15 | 65 ± 23 | 58% | 17 ± 18 | 01 ± 01 | 00 ± 00 | Non |
Ilyala | 6 | 19 ± 13 | 58 ± 11 | 50% | 19 ± 21 | 01 ± 01 | 00 ± 00 | Yes |
Ansouri | 10 | 33 ± 21 | 75 ± 15 | 70% | 27 ± 31 | 01 ± 01 | 00 ± 01 | No |
Rouni | 10 | 33 ± 21 | 75 ± 15 | 70% | 27 ± 31 | 01 ± 01 | 00 ± 01 | No |
Raka | 13 | 31 ± 21 | 71 ± 27 | 62% | 33 ± 35 | 02 ± 02 | 03 ± 07 | No |
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Keita, A.; Niang, D.; Sandwidi, S.A. How Non-Governmental-Organization-Built Small-Scale Irrigation Systems Are a Failure in Africa. Sustainability 2022, 14, 11315. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141811315
Keita A, Niang D, Sandwidi SA. How Non-Governmental-Organization-Built Small-Scale Irrigation Systems Are a Failure in Africa. Sustainability. 2022; 14(18):11315. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141811315
Chicago/Turabian StyleKeita, Amadou, Dial Niang, and Sibri Alphonse Sandwidi. 2022. "How Non-Governmental-Organization-Built Small-Scale Irrigation Systems Are a Failure in Africa" Sustainability 14, no. 18: 11315. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141811315