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Article

Does Self-Monitoring Influence Golfers? Analysis of Golf Tourism Using the Existence–Relatedness–Growth Theory

by
Ji-Hae Lee
1,*,
Hye-Kyung Cho
2 and
Min-Jun Kim
3
1
Golf Industry, Kyung-Hee University, Deogyeong-daero, Giheung-gu, Yongin-si 17104, Korea
2
Future Sports Converence, Shin-Han University, Euijeongbu 480701, Korea
3
Physical Education, Kyung-Hee University, Deogyeong-daero, Giheung-gu, Yongin-si 17104, Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022, 14(19), 12458; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912458
Submission received: 9 August 2022 / Revised: 15 September 2022 / Accepted: 26 September 2022 / Published: 30 September 2022
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Considering the recent paradigm shift in sports tourism due to COVID-19, it is essential to understand the tourism needs and mentality of consumers. This study aimed to verify the relationship between tourism needs, self-monitoring, and the switching intention of golfing tourists. We used online questionnaires to survey golf tourists who experienced negative attention from other people in the context of COVID-19. The results of the structural equation modeling analysis are as follows: (1) tourism needs partially affect self-monitoring; (2) self-monitoring has a significant effect on switching intention; (3) self-monitoring did not play a mediating role between existence needs and switching intention; and (4) relatedness needs and growth needs were shown to play a mediating role. From the standpoint of tourism planning and marketing, the findings reveal a desire for tourism despite the COVID-19 infection risks. Marketers should identify the preferred tourism content, according to consumers’ tourism needs, and develop customized plans.

1. Introduction

According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) [1], 2020 was “the worst year in tourism history.” In 2020, the economic loss of the global tourism industry reached USD 1300 billion, and 100–120 million jobs were lost. Traveling activities are often limited by environmental elements such as communicable diseases [2,3,4]. The number of international tourists decreased by 74% in 2020, which resulted in losses that were around 11 times greater than the losses incurred during the 2009 global economic crisis [5].
According to the Korea Tourism Organization’s “Survey of the effect of COVID-19 on domestic travel”, individuals are moving toward a contact-free (or “untact”) travel pattern that seeks to minimize contact with other people [6]. This survey predicted that “destinations with fewer tourists”, “offbeat or obscure travel destinations”, and “travel with a greater focus on personal hygiene” will become more popular. In addition, 92.8% of respondents expressed their intention to travel to a domestic destination as a leisure activity, and it is what they wanted to do the most after the pandemic [7]; hence, the demand for domestic travel is expected to continue rising even after the COVID-19 pandemic dies down.
Due to the repercussions of the pandemic, many tourists have experienced psychological unease, which they resolve by participating in various tourist activity patterns. As outdoor sports become increasingly popular, golf has started gaining recognition as a sport that can be enjoyed with minimal contact between people. Consequently, the sporting and industrial values of golf are on the rise compared with that of other sports. In the first half of 2020, the number of golf course visitors increased by 20% compared with the same period last year. A Bank of Korea report estimated the golf population at 5.15 million, and thus, the economic effects from the increase in golf activity would reach WON 3100 billion by the end of 2023 [8].
Even during crises such as an infectious disease outbreak, wherein travel activity is largely suppressed, tourists continued to maintain their tourism needs, which is a major factor influencing tourists’ motivation; such needs could also arise from the mental unease created by depriving access to tourism-based activities [9]. For instance, the number of overseas tourists decreased by 85.1%, falling from 28.71 million in 2019 to 4.28 million in 2020; however, the number of people travelling domestically was 7.6 times what it was in 2019, and 5.0 times what it was in 2020 [10]. Nevertheless, the demand for overseas travel during the COVID-19 pandemic greatly declined due to institutional or environmental suppressing factors such as entry restrictions; the decline in the demand for domestic travel is lower, but stable at a certain level, as the institutional or environmental factors suppressing the demand for domestic travel are relatively less severe than those concerning overseas travel.
Tourists tend to show self-regulatory behavior as they consider other people’s attention; this tendency is expressed as self-monitoring [11]. In general, people with a high tendency to self-monitor control their behavioral choices based on contextual information, rather than internal information, and thus, information concerning interpersonal relationships and the surrounding environment is very important; however, people with a low tendency to self-monitor make judgments based on their internal information, thus implying that they are not very involved with their surroundings [12]. With self-monitoring, the degree to which an individual’s behavior or attitude is influenced or altered depends upon the level of social appropriateness. People tend to be conscious of their image, and they seek to control or manage their behavior such that they appear positively to other people during their interpersonal interactions with one another [13].
In situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic, even if tourists feel a desire for tourism, they may exhibit different behaviors, that is, an intention to switch behavior, as they become more conscious of other people. This switching intention may prompt an attempt to seek a better alternative to the most commonly visited tourism destinations [14]. The manner in which they fulfil their tourism needs, and the tourism activity they choose, may be different in the context of COVID-19.
Recent studies have explored the relationship between psychological factors and behavior from multiple perspectives. They have discussed tourism motivation and action [9], psychological factors and behavior [15], and self-monitoring and behavior [16]. In some studies, participant groups were classified according to the degree of self-monitoring that they undertook [17].
Most previous studies have discussed psychological factors in ordinary situations, and not in the context of a special situation, as is the case now; psychological factors may operate differently considering the unprecedented nature of a pandemic. Tourists exhibit a greater need to relax and go out [18] considering the fact that their tourism needs were suppressed during the pandemic, and tourists are conscious of other people’s attention when they exhibit any behavior. Due to these factors, tourists explore alternative activities that can replace the tourism activities they enjoyed prior to the pandemic.
Considering the recent changes in sports tourism brought about by COVID-19, it is very important to understand the tourism needs and mentality of consumers—a key pillar of the tourism industry. This study contributes to the existing literature by examining sports tourism in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic to estimate and verify tourists’ behavioral changes based on tourism needs and mentality.
This study provides baseline data on the needs and behavioral changes of sports tourists for the post-COVID-19 period. The research objectives are as follows: (1) verify the effect of the domestic golfer’s sports tourism needs on their ability to self-monitor; (2) verify the effect of self-monitoring on switching intention; and (3) analyze the mediating role of self-monitoring on the relationship between sports tourism needs and switching intention.
The remainder of the paper is arranged as follows. In the next section, we review the related literature. Next, the research model and hypothesis are presented, followed by a description of the study methods and the evaluation of tourism behavior. In the last two sections, we present the discussion and conclusions.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Sports Tourism

The growth of the national income has influenced people’s attitude to life, and the increase in leisure time has influenced people’s perception of sports. These factors have led to varying trends in the tourism market, ranging from passive tourism, which involves observing nature or historical ruins, to active tourism, which includes sports tourism or ecotourism. Globally, the tourism industry is in a critical situation, as passive tourism products can no longer satisfy the diversified tastes and needs of tourists [19]. As tourism patterns change, sports tourism is gaining popularity, with about 34% of overseas tourists participating in different sporting activities [20].
Modern tourism is increasingly displaying “experimental tourism” trends, wherein the covert needs of tourists are fulfilled through a sense of unity with the tourism object through experience; this is unlike “escapist tourism” or “simple sightseeing tourism,” which involves merely visiting the tourist destination to see and enjoy it as a third party. The UNWTO predicts that 21st century tourism will follow movement- or activity-oriented trends, with small groups acting as participants [21]. The industry is moving toward active recreational tourism, wherein individuals participate in various physical activities, and they may use recreational facilities when staying in the same tourist site or playing a sport. This greatly enhances the importance of the position and role of sports with regard to tourism products in many countries [22].
The growing interest in sports, coupled with a greater emphasis on the importance of the tourism industry, has turned the spotlight on tourism through sports. “Sports tourism” is a tourism pattern which involves experiencing and watching sporting events; it can have beneficial health effects, and it may increase sociability on a personal level. Moreover, it can operate as an important local community development strategy for tourism purposes. Sport has a substantial effect on society, impacting its political, social, cultural, and economic dimensions. Sports tourism is becoming more popular as people are increasingly seeking out health tourism, experimental tourism, movement-oriented tourism, and opportunities for enjoying sports and travel simultaneously [23]. The future tourism market is expected to expand in conjunction with sport, and it will include tourism that is oriented toward nature, adventure, cultural experiences and themes, and cruises; thus, the combination of sport and tourism has established itself as one of the best leisure activities. Sport is considered the biggest social phenomenon, and similarly, tourism is touted to be the biggest industry in the world [24].
Goo [25] argued that sports tourism is one of the three biggest economic industries which plays an important role in promoting understanding among nations through experiencing a nation’s culture, customs, and traditions in this age of keen global competition in the 21st century. As sports tourism is not affected by seasonality, it can help overcome the low-tourism season, extend local tourism resources to create higher added value, and expand the base of local tourism through the dispersion of tourists and the use of local resources [26].
Above all, sports tourism has emerged as a highly effective means of invigorating the tourism industry in many countries, and it is a prominent phenomenon in the world tourism industry. This is because sports tourism is not merely limited to the contents of the game, but it may be connected to various local events or festivals; therefore, it may enhance local brands and provide an opportunity to generate novel interest, which can satisfy the needs of modern tourists [27]. According to the “Present Situation of Sport Tourism and its Policy Direction”, announced by the Korea Culture and Tourism Institute in 2015, the revenue of global sports tourism is USD 600 billion, which is 14% of the global tourism market [28]. Developed countries are making a great deal of government-led investments to attract more sport tourists.
At present, domestic sport tourism in South Korea is at an elementary level. Golf and marine sports are the only independent sporting tourism activities, and no other sporting activities are offered as an option [29]. As sport tourists also lack concrete and objective information, nor have they experienced the tourism destination, it is important to determine the factors influencing the selection of tourism destinations and the factors that should be considered.
These factors result from blended environmental elements that can be seen, felt, and experienced in sports tourism destinations. In other words, if the destination’s immanent (program, service) and extrinsic (facilities, places) qualities fulfil the needs or expectations of sport tourists satisfactorily, or even more than satisfactorily, or if the overall satisfaction level based on past or present experiences rises because of direct participation or experience in the sports tourism activity, the tourists’ satisfaction might cause them to re-visit and a sense of loyalty may be established [30].
The sports tourism industry is a value-added industry, which has a significant effect on employment, and it produces less pollution than the manufacturing industry; therefore, after recognizing this, all countries worldwide have been intensively cultivating the sports industry as an industry that has a national strategic purpose [31]. Sports tourism activities such as mountain trekking in Peru, survival sports in New Zealand and Australia, skiing in Canada, and marine sports in the Philippines and Jamaica, are well-known globally, and they are recognized as a major industry in these countries [32]. In Australia, the main industries are concerned with manufacturing or agriculture; however, its government established a strategy to foster sports tourism, and restructured its industrial structure to focus on the sports tourism industry, which in turn facilitated the commercialization of sports tourism.
Recognizing that sports tourism can greatly contribute to local economy, the Ministry of Tourism in Canada founded the Canadian Tourism Association in November 2000 to develop Canada as an international sports tourism site [33]. The United States has sports tourism committees in more than 100 cities and regions; indeed, Virginia State’s tourism department employs a permanently stationed sports tourism expert. Moreover, South Asian countries including China, Japan, Thailand, Malaysia, and the Philippines are putting substantial national efforts into golf course construction and golf promotion strategy development to attract golf tourists from all over the world [34]. As tourism-advanced countries focus on policies that integrate sports and sightseeing to attract tourists, the need for the characterization of sports tourism, and development of resources, has remarkably increased.

2.2. Tourism Needs: Existence–Relatedness–Growth (ERG) Theory

“Need” implies a basic instinct or craving for something which exists inside a person. It constitutes a fundamental reason for people’s actions, and it is a pre-motivational factor [35]. Locke [36] explained that the “needs stage” comprises the basis of the motivation sequence model. On this note, tourism needs are major factors that trigger tourism motivation, which could lead to actions that seek satisfaction and aim to overcome deprivation.
There are several theories related to needs, among which, the following are most common. First, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and existence–relatedness–growth (ERG) theories will be explored. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory categorized human needs into five hierarchical levels, namely, physiological needs, safety needs, need for belonging, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs [37]. The ERG theory presented three reduced forms of needs—need for existence, relatedness, and growth [38]. The ERG theory assumes that with regard to human behavior, more than one need can be activated at the same time, and the severity each of these three needs can be different depending on the individual’s character and culture [39].
A closer examination reveals that existence needs encompass physical needs, which include the resources required for human life (e.g., water, food, air, clothing), physiological needs, which are required for satisfaction in terms of vitality (e.g., leisure, sports, sleep, rest), and safety needs (e.g., safety from fear, anxiety, threat) [40]. Relatedness needs are needs concerning interpersonal relationships. An individual’s relatedness needs are satisfied by sharing their thoughts and feelings with another person [39], and they include a sense of belonging, stability, and respect. Sense of belonging is a need that alleviates feelings of isolation, loneliness, and distance. Sense of stability refers to the comfortableness that arises during the course of an interpersonal relationship. Sense of esteem is an element that changes according to other people’s responses, and it refers to respect from other people (e.g., popularity, social status, sense of superiority) [41]. Lastly, growth needs refer to that which affects one’s productivity and environment. Self-realization refers to self-fulfillment in terms of achieving individual goals and exploiting opportunities for development [42].
Of the two aforementioned theories, although Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is an important tool with which to understand human behavior, it has been argued that this theory has a limitation when estimating human behavior. Moreover, the restrictions on overseas travel, the minimization of external activity, and working from home due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, have placed huge restraints on tourism and daily life, and many people have reported feeling suffocation, depression, and loneliness [43]. In the case of America, Suh et al. [44] also revealed an overall increase in people’s self-realization needs during the COVID-19 pandemic crisis. During this period, relaxation needs greatly increased to relieve the accumulated psychological stress. In this context, it is essential to explore and predict human behavior by understanding the immanent instincts of human beings which reflect their need for sports—a subordinate desire—and mental health needs [45]. For this purpose, this study employs the ERG theory.

2.3. Self-Monitoring

Self-monitoring represents a personal disposition that controls behavior according to the situation [11]. Lennox and Wolfe [46] discussed self-monitoring as a concept where a person might embrace the sensibilities evoked from other people’s reactions, and demonstrate their ability to control their self-expression. The level of self-monitoring varies across individuals. This difference can be identified through the level of control and adjustment an individual exerts on their self-expression. The degree of self-monitoring depends on the environment [16]; for instance, the actions of the high self-monitoring group usually depend on the situation, as they tend to hide inner feelings.
The propagation effect of COVID-19 has a stronger impact on industries that require travel, including the tourism and aviation industries [47]. As exportability is high in these industries, people would show a higher degree of self-monitoring. Tourists are very concerned about what other people think regarding their experiences of travel or outdoor activities [48]. This concern is palpable even when travelling. Compared with previous years, most tourists are now concerned with other people’s perceptions due to the social atmosphere created by the present situation.
Tourists who exhibit a high degree of self-monitoring tend to avoid or change certain behaviors. If self-monitoring is properly activated, they control their behavior and adapt to their environment in a better manner, and in accordance with social requirements. In this context, Ghorban Nejad and Hansen [48] reported that a higher level of self-monitoring would lead to a higher possibility of eco-friendly tourism. Moreover, Pornsakulvanich [49] concludes that self-monitoring directly affects depression and uneasiness.

2.4. Switching Intention

Switching intention is a factor that triggers switching behavior; in other words, the desire to switch from a present relationship with a specific object to a relationship with another object [50]. It is a psychological state that is considered or planned when people would like to perform a switching action, and it is one of the components comprising behavioral intention; thus, it is also a major determinant of consumer behavior. With regard to tourism, switching intention refers to the customer’s desire to change or avoid a certain destination when selecting tourism products, and it involves a complementary behavior wherein they select another product to satisfy their needs [51]. Similarly to behavioral intention, switching intention could also be regarded as a variable that precedes switching behavior. An individual’s switching intention is also exhibited online when they analyze information concerning the costs and advantages of a product [52].
Due to restrictive factors such as virus spread, individuals may form a hostile attitude when visiting a tourism destination, thereby reducing travel intention, and causing them to switch from one destination to another [53]. When the planned destination is unavailable, or difficult to visit due to a certain constraint, tourists often select alternative destinations that provide similar tourism activities to the previously planned destination.
The switching intention that arises due to the spread of COVID-19 can be regarded as a case where switching occurs due to environmental changes. Instead of a personal visit to a tourism destination, contact-free (“untact”) tourism is now preferred due to external factors. It provides tourists with an indirect experience, and it can satisfy part of their need to visit a tourism destination.
Recent studies on switching behavior have focused mainly on three aspects: switching between offline services, switching between online services, and switching between offline and online services. According to Chung [54], switching between offline services shows that the switching behavior primarily deals with the change in object when choosing between similar services or in selecting destinations (e.g., airline, tourism destination). Kim et al. [55] examined switching between online services (e.g., cloud service, telecommunication company). Finally, Lai and Hitchcock explored switching between offline and online services, by investigating switching from a traditional mode to a technology-based platform (e.g., education platform, medical platform).
Lee and Kim [56] reported that based on environmental changes, visiting patterns are switched and carried out online in order to consider other people. This is a recently emerging social phenomenon, and the preceding factors leading to this phenomenon need to be discussed further. In this respect, this study would be useful, and could act as a pioneering study that explores this newly emerging social phenomenon, providing the baseline data for future studies that are related to tourists’ behavioral changes.

3. Research Model and Hypotheses

Since the COVID-19 pandemic began, sport tourists are conscious of how they might manage other peoples’ perceptions while still maintaining their tourism needs. This conscious behavior operates as a factor that precedes the switching intention that causes a change in tourism destination. Previous studies have segregated participant groups according to their level of self-monitoring [17], but as social distancing and disinfection policies become stronger, most tourists are now conscious of other people. In this context, this study aims to understand the relationship between different variables based on the existing literature.

3.1. Relation between Tourism Needs and Self-Monitoring

This study is based on the opinion of Locke [36], that needs are factors which precede motivation. Tourists are suffering from stress as the ongoing nature of the pandemic has resulted in a longer period of isolation. As people need to relieve stress, relaxation needs arise [18]. Additionally, interaction needs are met in a contact-free environment. Moreover, growth needs such as self-realization or self-examination arise [57]. People who experience these needs are obligated to be careful about how they engage with self-expression, due to other people’s perceptions of them [58]. Lee and Kim [43] also mentioned that tourists are conscious of other people in the context of COVID-19. Huang et al. [16] argued that in a special environment, environmental factors can result in self-monitoring; therefore, any individual might be conscious of other people in a special situation such as COVID-19. In this respect, we establish the following research hypotheses:
H1. 
Tourism needs have a positive effect on self-monitoring.
H1a. 
Existence needs have a positive effect on self-monitoring.
H1b. 
Relatedness needs have a positive effect on self-monitoring.
H1c. 
Growth needs have a positive effect on self-monitoring.

3.2. Relation between Self-Monitoring and Switching Intention

Individual behavior is controlled and modified by self-monitoring [46]. Ghorban Nejad and Hansen [48] deduced that tourists who show a higher degree of self-monitoring are more likely to engage with low-carbon sightseeing and eco-friendly behavior. Pornsakulvanich [49] stated that people who are more conscious of other people could be more addicted to digital environments (e.g., Facebook), as they are more sensitive about their own behavior, and they feel that it is important to consider how other might people think of them. At present, most countries’ governments are enforcing disinfection policies such as social distancing and mask wearing [47]. Under such social circumstances, tourists may switch their travelling behavior as they consider other people. Lee and Kim [56] concluded that after the outbreak of COVID-19, many tourists exhibited an intention to switch from traditional destination visits to online sightseeing activities. Based on these studies, we propose the following hypothesis:
H2. 
Self-monitoring has a positive effect on switching intention.

3.3. Mediating Role of Self-Monitoring

This study attempts to elucidate the mediating effect of self-monitoring by illustrating direct relationships between the key variables. Each individual controls their expression and changes their behavior according to their level of self-monitoring. Self-monitoring also influences changes in behavior depending on the environmental or social conditions [59]. In this context, tourists who wish to travel, even during the COVID-19 crisis, may change their tourism activity to a different one based on other peoples’ perceptions, the latter of which may have formed as a result of the social atmosphere or a policy; therefore, we propose the following study hypotheses:
H3. 
Self-monitoring plays a mediating role in the relationship between tourism needs and switching intention.
H3a. 
Self-monitoring plays a mediating role in the relationship between existence needs and switching intention.
H3b. 
Self-monitoring plays a mediating role in the relationship between relatedness needs and switching intention.
H3c. 
Self-monitoring plays a mediating role in the relationship between growth needs and switching intention.

4. Methods

4.1. Participants and Procedures

In this study, the survey method was used to collect data and purposive sampling was used. Before the survey began, written informed consent was obtained from participants, and the study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of our university. To increase the reliability of the sample, tourists who experienced negative attention from other people during the COVID-19 crisis were selected through a screening question: “Did you receive any negative attention from other people due to your tourism activities during the COVID pandemic?” The survey ended if the response was “no.” The survey was administered online, via a Google questionnaire from August 1 to September 30, 2021. Out of the 421 questionnaires that were answered, excluding undependable answers, 407 effective questionnaires (96.7%) were used for the analysis.
The respondents’ characteristics are as follows. There were 220 male (54%) and 187 female (46%) participants. In terms of age, 50 respondents (12.3%) were in their twenties, 102 (25%) in their thirties, 113 (27.8%) in their forties, 88 (21.6%) in their fifties, and 54 (13.3%) were over the age of sixty. With regard to the question concerning the number of times that individuals attended golf tourism events per year, 64.95% of respondents answered once a year; with regard to the average golf round played per month, the majority of respondents played 2–5 rounds of golf per month (43.5%).

4.2. Research Tools

Before preparing the questionnaire, the operational definitions of the variables were established, and the measurement items were devised based on extant research. Tourism needs are defined as an “individual’s mental state of longing arising from a lack of tourism activities.” Based on the ERG theory, measures for existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs were adopted. For existence needs, four items were used, based on the work of Alderfer [39]. For relatedness needs, four items were used, based on the work of Taormina and Gao [45]. For growth needs, four items were used, based on the work of Jin et al. [35] and Maslow [37]. Self-monitoring was defined as “a level of self-control based on the consideration of other people’s perceptions, formed due to circumstantial factors”, and seven items were used, based on the work of Alnakhli et al. [60] and Snyder and Gangestad [11]. Switching intention was defined as “the desire to switch one’s tourism style from offline tourism destination visits to contact-free online tourism”, and three items were used, based on the work of Lai and Hitchcock [14]. All items were rated using a five-point Likert scale.

4.3. Pilot Study

A pilot study was first conducted to determine the feasibility of using a survey questionnaire, in addition to the recruitment and data collection processes. A total of 100 questionnaires were used for exploratory factory analysis, and reliability analysis was used to validate the questionnaire. The tourism needs consisted of three factors, and they showed an explanatory power of 88.03% for the entire variant. The KMO goodness of fit was 0.823, and Cronbach’s α coefficients ranged from 0.911 to 0.987, which verified the suitability of the instrument.

4.4. Data Processing

A descriptive statistical analysis was conducted to understand the demographic characteristics of the respondents. Confirmatory factor analysis and correlation analysis were conducted to verify the goodness and validity of the measuring model. Finally, a structural equation model analysis was conducted to verify the study hypotheses. SPSS 24.0 and AMOS 24.0 were used for performing the analyses.

5. Results

5.1. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

In order to validate the test items, confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to establish construct validity. The results are presented in Table 1. Overall, the confirmatory factor analysis results indicate that the research model has goodness of fit. To analyze the convergent validity of each variable, we calculated the construct reliability and the average variance extracted, which were relatively high for all variables at 0.887–0.949 and 0.694–0.822, respectively.

5.2. Correlation Analysis

Correlation analysis was conducted between items of unidimensionality, which was determined through the CFA of the relationship between tourism needs, self-monitoring, and switching intention. According to the results, the correlation coefficients were between 0.107 and 0.510. Furthermore, no variable showed a correlation of more than 0.8.

5.3. Model Verification

The structural equation model was analyzed to identify the relationship between tourism needs, self-monitoring, and switching intention for golf tourists. The results of the hypotheses verification are presented in Table 2.
The hypothesis testing revealed that tourism needs partially affect self-monitoring. More specifically, the existence needs (β = 0.034) were found to have no significant effect on self-monitoring, and therefore, H1a was not supported; however, relatedness needs (β = 0.203 **) and growth needs (β = 0.407 ***) were found to have a significant effect on self-monitoring, thereby supporting H1b and H1c.
Self-monitoring (β = 0.510 ***) was found to have a significant effect on switching intention, and thus, H2 was supported. We also investigated whether self-monitoring played a mediating role in the relationship between tourism desire and switching intention; it was found that self-monitoring did not play a mediating role between existence needs (β = 0.017) and switching intention, and thus, H3a was not supported; however, the mediating role of self-monitoring on the relationship between the tourism needs of relatedness (β = 0.104 **) and growth (β= 208 **) and switching intention was found to be significant, and therefore, H3b and H3c were supported.

6. Discussion

The results of this study reveal that two sub-factors of tourism needs demonstrated a statistically significant effect on self-monitoring. This result is in line with previous research findings which show that needs influence people’s tendency to become more conscious of other people’s opinions [16,58]. Moreover, previous studies have found that self-monitoring has a statistically significant effect on switching intention, as it controls or modifies behavior [48,49]. Furthermore, existence needs are the most basic needs, and they include psychological aspects. These basic needs can be satisfied up to a certain level without undertaking an external activity, due to technological development. Golf has various tools, which means that it can be practiced indoors or in the backyard, and thus, the desire to golf can be satisfied to some extent. Moreover, recently, a virtual form of golf has been created, where various golf courses can be played, simply by connecting Bluetooth; thus, existence needs were found to have no effect on self-monitoring. The influence of relatedness needs on self-monitoring was analyzed, revealing that considering other people’s perceptions, in the context of prolonged disinfection policies, are external factors that impact one’s tendencies to self-monitor. In particular, in the case of Korea, it is impossible to play a round of golf alone, and thus, it is believed that there is no choice but to be more conscious of other people because they must play with others for a long time—between four to five hours. Moreover, the need to be with others increased due to the contact-free (“untact”) nature of the situation. As growth needs (self-realization) are directly related to external activity, we hypothesized that growth needs influence self-monitoring. Between these two needs, growth needs have a greater influence on self-monitoring because the fulfilment of growth needs requires using “other people” as reference [37]. In the golf tourism context, growth-related activities for self-realization include adventures [35] and social work [61]. Growth needs involve a desire to not only belong to a certain group, but to be recognized by others for the external activity that they undertake; hence, such needs may be imbued with an altruistic value. Indeed, golf tourists who have growth needs would be more conscious of other people. The analysis also reveals that any golf tourist who is conscious of other people prefers virtual or online tourism activities compared with external activities, as they perceive other peoples’ opinions to be important.
This study confirmed that the intermediary role of self-monitoring, in the relationship between tourism needs and switching intention, and the phenomenon of being conscious of other people, can be found when they engage with switching behaviors. These results show that golfers who self-monitor to a high level, in an atmosphere that values other people’s opinions, adjust their actions or reactions according to the situation in order to exhibit an ideal social appearance; therefore, it is evident that such golfers are extremely likely to present and interact in a manner that they deem to be the most suitable in order to adapt the social situation, and thus, it may not reflect their actual attitudes or values.
The theoretical contributions of this study are as follows. First, this study expands the domain of knowledge concerning golf tourism by discussing the relationship between tourism needs and self-monitoring, which has not been adequately studied in the literature on tourism. Tourism needs are psychological factors that develop an individual’s motivation, and they affect behavior; however, previous studies have overlooked how these factors operate in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. In this respect, this study makes a significant contribution, as it examines the overall mechanism concerning the increase in tourism needs (which have been deprived due to the pandemic) and the influence of these needs on self-monitoring in a certain social context, which, in turn, leads to switching behavior. Second, this study has meaningful implications as it reconfirmed that tourists continue to fulfil their tourism needs, even in a contact-free (“untact”) atmosphere, and it confirmed the manner in which such needs are expressed; thus, these results provide the basis for a follow-up study. Third, this study has implications for future research as it revealed that most people engage with self-monitoring in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, wherein self-monitoring was discussed mainly as a response to external control mechanisms [17]. The self-monitoring concept needs to be studied, not as the result of controlling mechanisms, but as an intermediary parameter.
Since this study was limited to the COVID-19 pandemic, it will be somewhat difficult to generalize with this result; however, in the future, if there is a similar situation that requires, for example, lockdowns and social distancing, as was the case during the COVID-19 pandemic, the results of this study may be considered helpful in preparing for such an event.

7. Conclusions

This study was conducted to understand the sports tourism needs in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the resultant psychological mechanisms and switching behaviors that emerge. This study provides baseline data for understanding sport tourists’ mentalities and the contact-free tourism pattern.
The contributions of this study that can be put into practice are as follows. First, it presents a direction for designing marketing strategies for future tourist behavior by elucidating the golf tourism needs of an individual in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Marketers advertising tourism activities should pay attention to the tourism needs that are still present despite the risk of COVID-19 infection. Increasing constraints on external activities, such as social distancing and preventive measures against epidemics, influence switching behavior through the mechanism of self-monitoring, which takes into consideration the opinions of other people. Consequently, the tourism needs that are not satisfied are subsequently suppressed. Moreover, sports tourism needs influence self-monitoring and switching intention in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Ultimately, the needs are maintained, whereas satisfaction from the activity that the individual switches to decreases if switching to that activity was caused by external factors; thus, it is essential to find a way to fulfil essential needs when engaging with the activity that the individual has switched to. For instance, for people who have a strong desire for self-improvement, online art gallery or museum tours could be opened, along with a forum for explaining the exhibits and communicating with other participants. Such activities provide the possibility for self-improvement, regardless of time and place. Second, as we confirm that sport tourists intend to switch their tourism activity so that they participate in them online, this study presents directions for online marketing. These online activities include watching tourism videos on YouTube or searching for information regarding the next tourism opportunity. Golf facilities, hotels/resorts, and local governments that have tourism resources can stimulate the tourism needs of potential consumers. Marketers can use photos and videos of tourism destinations and they can provide tourism information relating to their destinations through YouTube or various social networking platforms. Additionally, marketers must focus their efforts on advertising preferred consumer plans according to tourism needs, and they must tailor the contents of the plan for potential visitors.
Despite these contributions, this study has the following limitations. First, as it was conducted over a relatively short period, it is limited in terms of its ability to generalize. Second, this study was limited to a special situation called the COVID-19 pandemic; therefore, it is evident that the implications presented, and the results obtained through this study, will be difficult to apply in the future when faced with other types of pandemic situations. Third, as it was conducted based on the ERG theory, it has limitations related to understanding the phased levels of needs. Accordingly, future studies should include subdividing the stages of tourism needs and analyzing how they appear at each specific stage.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.-H.L.; methodology, J.-H.L.; writing—original draft, J.-H.L.; Formal analysis, H.-K.C.; supervision, H.-K.C.; Software, M.-J.K.; investigation, M.-J.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Kyung Hee University (No. KHGIRB-22-333).

Informed Consent Statement

Before the survey began, written informed consent was obtained from participants.

Data Availability Statement

The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declared no potential conflict of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Table
Table 1. Confirmatory factor analysis.
Table 1. Confirmatory factor analysis.
VariableItemβS.Et-Value
Existence needsTo rest0.853
To get away from my daily life0.8470.05816.476 ***
To reduce stress0.8800.05417.457 ***
To regain vitality0.8030.06115.137 ***
CR = 0.900  AVE = 0.694
Relatedness needsTo be with family/friends0.838
To maintain a good relationship with family/friends0.8350.05515.956 ***
To form a good relationship with family/friends0.9130.05618.310 ***
To make good memories with family/friends0.8470.05916.315 ***
CR = 0.921  AVE = 0.744
Growth needsTo increase my value0.860
To use my time well0.9120.05220.503 ***
To find the meaning of life0.8850.05819.279 ***
To learn and discover new things0.9670.05023.117 ***
CR = 0.949  AVE = 0.822
Self-monitoringWhen I went on a trip during the COVID-19 pandemic, I was bothered by other people’s reactions.0.791
When I went on a trip during the COVID-19 pandemic, I was sensitive to other people’s feelings.0.8270.07214.009 ***
If someone says it is not right for me to travel during the COVID-19 pandemic, I could alter my behavior.0.8690.07614.829 ***
When I went on a trip during the COVID-19 pandemic, I was conscious of people giving me bad looks.0.8200.07913.860 ***
CR = 0.903  AVE = 0.700
Switching
intention		I am likely to switch to online physical tourism activities as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.0.831
I am considering reducing tourism activities and increasing online tourism activities as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.0.8910.06515.708 ***
I will consider switching to online tourism activities as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.0.8240.06414.662 ***
CR = 0.887  AVE = 0.724
x 2 = 392.48   ( p < 0.001 ) , GFI = 0.927, NFI = 0.903, RMSEA = 0.044
*** p < 0.001; CR, construct reliability; AVE, average variance extracted; GFI, Goodness of fit index; NFI, normed fit index; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation.
Table
Table 2. Verification of the hypotheses.
Table 2. Verification of the hypotheses.
PathDirectIndirectTotalResult
H1H1aExistence → Self-monitoring0.0340.0000.034Not supported
H1bRelatedness → Self-monitoring0.203 **0.0000.203 **Supported
H1cGrowth → Self-monitoring0.407 ***0.0000.407 ***Supported
H2Self-monitoring → Switching intention0.510 ***0.0000.510 ***Supported
H3H3aExistence → Switching intention0.0000.0170.017Not supported
H3bRelatedness → Switching intention0.0000.104 **0.104 **Supported
H3cGrowth → Switching intention0.0000.208 **0.208 **Supported
x 2 = 392.92   ( p < 0.001 ) , GFI = 0.925, NFI = 0.901, RMSEA = 0.055
*** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.05; GFI, Goodness of fit index; NFI, normed fit index; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation.
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Lee, J.-H.; Cho, H.-K.; Kim, M.-J. Does Self-Monitoring Influence Golfers? Analysis of Golf Tourism Using the Existence–Relatedness–Growth Theory. Sustainability 2022, 14, 12458. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912458

AMA Style

Lee J-H, Cho H-K, Kim M-J. Does Self-Monitoring Influence Golfers? Analysis of Golf Tourism Using the Existence–Relatedness–Growth Theory. Sustainability. 2022; 14(19):12458. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912458

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Lee, Ji-Hae, Hye-Kyung Cho, and Min-Jun Kim. 2022. "Does Self-Monitoring Influence Golfers? Analysis of Golf Tourism Using the Existence–Relatedness–Growth Theory" Sustainability 14, no. 19: 12458. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912458

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