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Article

Utilization of Selected Nanoparticles (Ag2O and MnO2) for the Production of High-Quality and Environmental-Friendly Gasoline

by
Ahmed A. Fattah
1,*,
Tarek M. Aboul-Fotouh
2,
Khaled A. Fattah
3 and
Aya H. Mohammed
1
1
Engineering Mathematics and Physics Department, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Future University in Egypt, Cairo 11835, Egypt
2
Mining and Petroleum Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt
3
Mining and Petroleum Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza 12622, Egypt
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022, 14(19), 12513; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912513
Submission received: 1 September 2022 / Revised: 23 September 2022 / Accepted: 26 September 2022 / Published: 30 September 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Behavior of Nanoparticles)
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Abstract

:
Nowadays, the devastating effects of the pollutants produced by gasoline are known well. As a result, scientists are looking for a better formula to replace the gasoline currently in use. Using different additives has been one of the strategies developed throughout the years. However, because certain compounds damage the environment and human life, researchers must now choose which additives to use. The primary goal of this work is to test a gasoline combination with nano-additives Ag2O and MnO2 in a 4-stroke vehicle engine (Fiat 128) and to investigate the influence of novel mixes on the efficiency of combustion rates and the amount of target pollutant gas released (CO, NOx, and the exhaust temperature). The tests were carried out at three different engine speeds: 2000, 2500, and 2900 rpm. At the end of the test, the 0.05% concentration of Ag2O nano-additive was chosen as the best sample, which increases engine performance in gasoline combustion rates and minimizes harmful gas emissions. Furthermore, CO and NOx emissions were lowered by 52% and 35%, respectively, according to EURO 6, indicating a considerable reduction in mortality rates and costs. Finally, a new mechanism was observed using Ag2O nanoparticles, leading to a reduction in CO and CO2 at the same time.

1. Introduction

Pollution is one of the most important global issues confronting humanity, and its influence on public health is worsening year by year [1]. However, the main air pollution sources include industrial fumes and fuel combustion exhausts [2,3]. Moreover, it is widely recognized that the majority of the electricity consumed is derived from fossil fuels, which are rapidly depleting and emitting dangerous emissions [4,5,6]. As a result, increasing air pollution has opened the door to the threat of extinction of many habitats that have been part of our global ecosystem for thousands and millions of years [7,8]; it also plays a great role in causing many diseases such as cancer, lung disease, and respiratory symptoms for children [9,10,11,12]. Therefore, scientists have decided to use new technologies to produce clean and environmental gasoline, such as ethanol injection, nanotechnology, etc. [13,14,15].
In the car sector, the usage of gasoline or diesel additives is an extensively used technique to enhance engine overall performance and decrease dangerous emissions such as CO, NOx, etc. [16,17]. CO is emitted as a result of incomplete combustion; it mixes with hemoglobin to generate carboxyhemoglobin, which then binds to hemoglobin with an affinity of 200 times that of oxygen [18,19,20]. NOx (NO and NO2) is the main purpose of the formation of ground-level ozone [21,22].
Fuel additives are chemicals that are added to enhance the performance or add properties that were not present in base fuel [23]. These additives may be liquids or solids such as nanomaterials, non-metal-based, metal-based, or oxygenized additives [24,25,26]. In a numerical study on the performance of Spark Ignited “SI” engines, using a mixed fuel of gasoline and ethanol, CO2 was increased, and CO and HC concentrations were decreased [27].
As a consequence of the discovery of nanoparticle additions (Metal oxides) that enhance full combustion in recent years, it has made its way into industrial centers such as engines through fuel synthesis [28,29,30,31]. Scientists tested standard additives on gasoline and diesel engines, finding disparities in engine performance and exhaust pollutants. As a result, improved engine performance was demonstrated with increased CO emissions. As a result, they chose to employ nano-additives rather than traditional additives to achieve full combustion and so minimize CO emissions. Indeed, these tests revealed a considerable boost in engine performance as well as a large reduction in the exhaust ratio in both diesel and gasoline engines. From the survey, only M.Amirabedia et al. studied the nanoparticles additives on gasoline fraction by using Mn2O3 and Co3O4 [32,33,34,35]. Fuels filled with metal oxide nanoparticles (Ag2O, MgO, TiO2, MnO2, Fe3O4/Fe2O3, MnO2, Al2O3, and CeO2 [36]) provide additional oxygen during combustion, significantly reducing harmful emissions [37,38,39]. Since silver oxide nanoparticles are used in medical applications and are considered the least harmful metal oxide nanoparticles [40,41,42], as a unique endeavor around the globe, Ag2O nanoparticle samples will be tested in this research in comparison to MnO2 nanoparticle samples. No one in the world has used Ag2O nanoparticles as fuel additives directly to gasoline before.
The remainder of this paper is prepared as follows; the subsequent segment, which indicates engine setup, all devices and materials that have been used, experiments’ steps and setup, and the mechanism of nanoparticles. Results and discussions of each sample trial, including the comparison with the standard EURO 6, are found in Section 3. Finally, in Section 4, conclusions are provided, along with some future research directions.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Engine Setup

The work setup consists of a “SI” Fiat Single Overhead Camshaft “SOHC” engine, RPM digital measurement against the engine gears, fuel filter, radiator as shown in Figure 1, and a gas analyzer to measure emissions of gas exhaust. The specifications of the test engine given in the experiments were conducted on the same day to avoid performance and emission data differences caused by air humidity and temperature variations, boosting the reliability of experimental results.
Table 1 Emission testing and performance were carried out at 2000, 2500, and 2900 rpm. The temperatures of the exhaust gas and lubricant were recorded throughout the trials to ensure engine performance under steady-state situations. All parameters were continuously monitored using digital data collection. In order to eliminate traces of the other fuel mixes before collecting data on engine performance and exhaust emissions for the fuel blends, the engine was run exclusively on gasoline for a time. Experiments were conducted on the same day to avoid performance and emission data differences caused by air humidity and temperature variations, boosting the reliability of experimental results.

2.2. Fuel Samples

This study used RON 80 fuel from a local petrol station to fuel the engine. Ag2O and MnO2 nano-additives were purchased. Nanoparticle additive properties and sizes are presented in Figure 2 and Table 2. However, to prepare the blended fuel, the mass of nano-additives and gasoline was poured into a suitable container approved for usage with fuel to obtain the blend ratios listed in Table 3 (samples with concentrations of 0.05%, 0.1%, and 0.15% by weight for each nano-additive). Before using these blends in the fuel tank, blends were mixed by a magnetic stirrer for 10–15 min. An ultra-sonicator was then used for 10–15 min until reaching homogeneity.

2.3. Emissions Measurement

A precisely calibrated emission analyzer (1500–E4500) measured the exhaust emissions of CO, NOx in g/km, O2, CO2 in percentage (%), and Exhaust temperature in degrees Celcius.

2.4. Experimental Steps

Seven samples were prepared for usage in the gasoline engine; the first one is gasoline RON 80 free additives. The other samples are gasoline RON 80 mixed with MnO2 and Ag2O nano-additives at concentrations of 0.05%, 0.1%, and 0.15% for samples (X1, X2, X3) and (Y1, Y2, Y3), respectively.

2.5. Nanoparticles Mechanism

Nanoparticles increase the surface area, and thus reaction rates will increase. Furthermore, the light from the spark plug in the engine strikes the surface of the blended samples at specific angles of incidence to excite the electrons’ surface owing to an oscillation mode known as surface plasmon resonance “SPR.” In other words, this mode generates a large quantity of energy, which causes excitation of these electrons for a longer period than typical. Resulting in higher reaction rates with oxygen to create free radical oxide “O·” that reacts with fuel to produce CO2 and H2O, reaching almost complete combustion [44,45] as shown in Figure 3. The Ag2O and MnO2 nanoparticles in fuel work as an oxygen buffer, providing additional oxygen for carbon to convert into CO2 directly by using Ag2O and in two steps by using MnO2. On the other hand, it can also oxidize CO to CO2 directly by using O2 of excess air as shown in the Equations below; lowering CO emissions as shown in [46,47,48]
For Ag2O
2Ag2O + C → 4Ag + CO2 (Fast reaction) [49]
For MnO2
MnO2 + 2C → Mn + 2CO (Fast reaction)
MnO2 + CO → MnO + CO2 [49]
CO + ½ O2 → CO2

3. Results and Discussion

The experimental work included the measure of exhaust emissions for the base gasoline and nanoparticle blended samples by using the gas analyzer.

3.1. Exhaust Emissions Analysis

The results from a gas analyzer for all samples at 2000, 2500, and 2900 rpm have been illustrated in the following steps.

3.1.1. Base Gasoline RON 80 Free Additives

It can be noted that oxygen, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide decreased when the engine speed increased, as in Table 4. However, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide increased under the same conditions. Generally, Table 4 represented incomplete combustion for the base sample because the rate of carbon monoxide increased gradually. However, the rate of oxygen decreased because it was consumed in the increasing reactions at high engine speeds. At the same time, the exhaust temperatures declined because of the internal and external cooling systems. The internal cooling system depended on lubrication, water, and air cycles, respectively, and the external cooling system depended on the velocity of outside air.

3.1.2. Gasoline RON 80 with MnO2 and Ag2O

Figure 4 illustrates a comparison between base gasoline and blended samples for CO emission. The figure showed a reduction in most blended samples at low and medium engine speeds; at 2000 rpm, the emission from the base was approximately 2.1 g/km, and Y1 and X1 samples were 1.25 and 1.28 g/km, respectively. On the other hand, at high-speed emission varies from one concentration to the other; at 2900 rpm the emission from the base was approximately 3.25 g/km and Y2, Y3, X2, and X3 samples were approximately 1.57, 3.44, 3.29, and 1.1 g/km respectively. All in all, the Y1 sample indicated the optimum percentage of CO emission at 2500 rpm. Therefore, approximately complete combustion appeared at 2500 rpm for the Y1 sample as compared to samples at 2000, 2500, and 2900 rpm.
However, approximately complete combustion was observed at 2000 rpm for the X1 sample as compared to other X samples and thus X1 sample became the optimum sample for MnO2 nanoparticles. As an overall vision, at all engine speeds, the X1 sample achieved a reduction in the percentage of CO and O2 with increasing in CO2 according to the normal theory. However, the Y1 sample obtained a new mechanism at which the percentage of CO and CO2 decreased with increasing in O2 due to a limited fast reaction as explained in the equations above and figures below.
Figure 5 revealed that the maximum excess O2 was at Y1 (2500 rpm) so the rate of reactions at this condition was limited, and thus a significant decrease was indicated in the percentage of CO and NOx to reach 1.16 and 0.0007 g/km, respectively, according to EURO 6 as shown in Figure 4 and Figure 6. Moreover, the percentage of CO2 decreased to the approximately lowest value at Y1 (2500 rpm), which indicated a high impact on decreasing global warming in the world, as shown in Figure 7. Generally, Figure 5 illustrated increasing in O2 percentage for Y samples to support the new theory of silver oxide nanoparticles in spite of decreasing in percentage for X samples.
Nanoparticles enabled combustion at low pressure and temperature and provided an earlier spark, resulting in less time spent in this process. As a result, the output power accelerates faster than usual, resulting in more kilometers traveled per liter of mixed gasoline, as shown in Figure 8. The combustion rates of most blended fuels were much higher than those of the base fuel. For example, the optimum sample Y1 had the highest combustion rates of 23, 23.3, and 26.3 km/L at 2000, 2500, and 2900 rpm, respectively, when it was compared to those 12.5, 16.4, and 18 km/L at 2000, 2500, and 2900 rpm respectively of the base fuel.
Figure 9 illustrates the base sample’s exhaust temperature compared with blended samples. Through the results, it could be observed that at a low speed (2000 rpm), the exhaust temperature of all blended samples was lower than the base sample except sample X2. However, at the medium speed (2500 rpm), all the blended samples’ exhaust temperatures were equal to or less than the base sample, while at high speed (2900 rpm), the exhaust temperatures of most blended samples were higher than the base sample. Finally, the Y1 sample represented the optimum case because the normal range of speeds was between 2000 and 2500 rpm.

3.2. Optimum Sample and the Comparison with EURO Standard Limits for Gasoline Engine’s Exhaust

Choosing the optimum sample required a study of the exhaust emissions of each nano-additive gasoline sample and compared it with the EURO 6 standard for gasoline engine exhaust, especially for “CO” and “NOx” emissions, as shown in Table 5. As a result, the Y1 sample played the effective role of meeting standard regulations during all speeds; 2000, 2500, and 2900 rpm, as shown in Figure 10. On the other hand, it was observed that all NOx emissions were extremely lower than the EURO 6 standard.

3.3. Effects on Health and Environment

As the optimal fuel sample “Y1” resulted in a reduction in CO emissions at all speeds, the results had a significant impact on health and the environment. Death numbers, for example, were provided in studies acknowledged by Health Canada and throughout the world. According to the current health impact analysis, on-road and off-road gasoline emissions contributed to ambient concentrations of criterion air pollutants, causing population health consequences and societal costs in Canada. On-road gasoline emissions were connected to 700 early deaths (worth USD 5.0 billion) in the calendar year 2015, with ambient PM2.5, NO2, CO, and O3 according for 69%, 20%, 6%, and 5% of the projected mortalities, respectively. Gasoline emissions from on- and off-road vehicles have been associated with 940 early deaths (worth USD 6.8 billion), with ambient PM2.5, NO2, O3, and CO accounting for 66%, 17%, 11%, and 6% of the estimated mortalities, respectively [51].
According to our results, all these statistics can be reduced, as shown in Figure 11.
From this example, there are thirty people out of fifty-seven who would be safe and alive if this research was applied.

4. Conclusions

An experimental study was performed on a SI engine (Fiat 128). In order to make the blended fuel of nano-additive homogenous, a magnetic stirrer and ultra-sonicator were used. The engine is powered by base gasoline, gasoline with 0.05%, gasoline with 0.1%, and gasoline with 0.15% by weight from MnO2 and Ag2O nano-additives blends. The results indicated remarkable improvements in the combustion rates. Instead of 12.5, 16.4, and 18.5 km/L for the base gasoline, it reaches 23, 23.3, and 26.3 km/L optimum blended gasoline and a noticeable decrease in exhaust emissions; CO and NOx emissions by 52% and 35%, respectively, in the optimum blended fuel sample (Y1 at 2500 rpm). Moreover, the reduction is reflected in the health and environment, as mentioned in the results, by reducing the number of premature mortalities and money spent on treating diseases due to harmful exhaust emissions.
Finally, the best blend is the gasoline sample with 0.05% of Ag2O nano-additive (Y1 sample) for the engine and environment because:
  • Its CO emissions are lower at all speeds than other samples meeting the EURO 6 requirements, and its CO2 emissions are quite low, in contrast to the X1 sample, which has high CO2 emissions.
  • Combustion rates of the Y1 sample are recording the highest rates among all samples.
  • Lowest exhaust temperatures in the most commonly used engine speeds (2000–2500) rpm.
Now, a new theory occurred in a study of silver oxide nanoparticles that represented a reduction in the percentage of CO and CO2 in spite of increasing O2. However, manganese dioxide nanoparticles represented the normal theory of fuel combustion.
This work was on an old model motor, but the same mechanism will appear on the new models of vehicles. In other words, new motors have high performance, which harmonizes with newly produced gasoline in the combustion system to provide high efficiency to motors.

Author Contributions

T.M.A.-F., K.A.F. and A.H.M.: Planning, Methodology suggestion, Supervision, Validation of the results, review and editing of the article; A.A.F.: Experimental work, writing, and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Future University in Egypt.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to their large size.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge Cairo University and FUE for supporting this work.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Engine setup.
Figure 1. Engine setup.
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Figure 2. TEM of Ag2O and MnO2, nano-additive, respectively.
Figure 2. TEM of Ag2O and MnO2, nano-additive, respectively.
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Figure 3. Mechanism of nano-additives.
Figure 3. Mechanism of nano-additives.
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Figure 4. CO emission for base and blended samples X and Y at selected engine speeds.
Figure 4. CO emission for base and blended samples X and Y at selected engine speeds.
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Figure 5. O2 emissions for base and blended gasoline samples X and Y at all speeds.
Figure 5. O2 emissions for base and blended gasoline samples X and Y at all speeds.
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Figure 6. NOx emissions for base and blended gasoline samples X and Y at all speeds.
Figure 6. NOx emissions for base and blended gasoline samples X and Y at all speeds.
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Figure 7. CO2 emissions for base and blended gasoline samples X and Y at all speeds.
Figure 7. CO2 emissions for base and blended gasoline samples X and Y at all speeds.
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Figure 8. Combustion rates for all gasoline samples.
Figure 8. Combustion rates for all gasoline samples.
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Figure 9. Exhaust temperatures of all gasoline samples at all speeds.
Figure 9. Exhaust temperatures of all gasoline samples at all speeds.
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Figure 10. CO emissions comparison with EURO 6.
Figure 10. CO emissions comparison with EURO 6.
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Figure 11. Effect of optimum nano-additive on health and environment.
Figure 11. Effect of optimum nano-additive on health and environment.
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Table
Table 1. Engine specifications [43].
Table 1. Engine specifications [43].
EngineFiat 128
Engine type—number of cylindersInline—4
Fuel type Gasoline
CoolantWater
Engine alignmentTransverse
Engine capacity (cc)1116 cc
No of valves8
Compression ratio8.88
Horsepower—maximum power65 hp—6000 rpm
No of speeds (transmissions)Four speeds manual
Table
Table 2. Nano-additives specifications.
Table 2. Nano-additives specifications.
Nano-AdditiveMnO2Ag2O
Appearance (color)BrownDeep brown to black
Appearance (form)PowderPowder
Approximate Avg. Size70 nm70 nm
ShapeQuasi-Spherical-like shapeSpherical-like shape
Table
Table 3. Nano-additives mass calculations.
Table 3. Nano-additives mass calculations.
Gasoline RON 80 (1 L Equivalent to 738 Gram)
Nano-Additives Percentage by Mass
Percentage0.05%0.10%0.15%
Mass in gram0.370.741.10
Table
Table 4. Exhaust emissions for base gasoline.
Table 4. Exhaust emissions for base gasoline.
Gasoline RON 80 Exhaust Emissions
2000 rpm2500 rpm2900 rpm
O2 (%)10.702.701.10
CO (g/km)2.162.213.25
CO2 (%)7.7013.7014.90
NOx (g/km)0.003000.002000.00028
Exhaust Temperature (°C)190.60171.90161.30
Combustion rate (km/L)12.516.418.5
Table
Table 5. Euro standard emissions [50].
Table 5. Euro standard emissions [50].
EmissionsEURO 1 (1992)EURO 2 (1996)EURO 3 (2000)EURO 4 (2005)EURO 5&6 (2009–2014)
CO g/km2.732.202.301.141.00
NOx g/km0.300.300.150.090.06
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Fattah, A.A.; Aboul-Fotouh, T.M.; Fattah, K.A.; Mohammed, A.H. Utilization of Selected Nanoparticles (Ag2O and MnO2) for the Production of High-Quality and Environmental-Friendly Gasoline. Sustainability 2022, 14, 12513. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912513

AMA Style

Fattah AA, Aboul-Fotouh TM, Fattah KA, Mohammed AH. Utilization of Selected Nanoparticles (Ag2O and MnO2) for the Production of High-Quality and Environmental-Friendly Gasoline. Sustainability. 2022; 14(19):12513. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912513

Chicago/Turabian Style

Fattah, Ahmed A., Tarek M. Aboul-Fotouh, Khaled A. Fattah, and Aya H. Mohammed. 2022. "Utilization of Selected Nanoparticles (Ag2O and MnO2) for the Production of High-Quality and Environmental-Friendly Gasoline" Sustainability 14, no. 19: 12513. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912513

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