A Review of the Public Transport Services Based on the Blockchain Technology
Abstract
:1. Introduction
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- Dealing with the issue of urban congestion;
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- Greenhouse gas emissions;
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- A lack of integration between public transport services and technology;
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- Fraud and security.
- ➢
- An overview of problems in existing public transport services is presented;
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- This review highlights the state-of-the-art of public transport services using bibliometric maps using the WOS, Scopus, and ScienceDirect databases;
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- This review focuses on the influence of public transportation in an urban area with large populations to propose solutions using blockchain technology for future development of the current management platforms;
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- This review focuses on public transport management using blockchain technology that is analyzed from a sustainability point of view related to environmental, economic and social, and public awareness effects;
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- Results obtained using blockchain technology are associated with each identified keyword.
2. State-of-the-Art in Related Works
2.1. Blockchain for Public Transport Management
2.2. Blockchain in Public Transport Technology
2.3. Blockchain Used in Public Transport Services
3. Public Transport Services and the Environment
3.1. The Influence of Public Transport on the Environment
3.2. Public Transport Management
3.2.1. Public Transport Management—The State of the Art
- (a)
- Problems related to people:
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- Improving the road infrastructure to the disadvantage of the natural habitat areas;
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- The quality of life has been changed by the presence of noise, harmful gases in the air, and traffic accidents;
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- The pedestrian and play area is reduced, as well as the possibility of building cycling tracks.
- (b)
- Problems with the car:
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- Increased noise due to continuously increased motorized traffic;
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- Reducing traffic congestion will influence environmental conditions;
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- Convincing people to drive in certain places or at certain times by offering rewards;
- ➢
- Establishing government regulations to use other means of transport such as car sharing;
- ➢
- Generating laws that encourage the use of environmentally friendly and safer cars.
- (c)
- Environmental issues:
- In this sense, we can mention:
- ➢
- CO2-containing exhaust gases;
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- Nitrogen oxides and suspended particles;
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- The main source of the noise.
3.2.2. Public Transport Management Proposed Using Blockchain Technology
- Economic
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- Transaction;
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- Management;
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- Infrastructure construction;
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- Finance.
- 2.
- Social and Public Awareness
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- Travel sharing;
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- Dissemination of critical data—in the sense that if a bus cannot reach the station due to technical problems, one cannot reach the destination (work especially) on time;
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- Creating more efficient ticketing systems (it is hoped that purchasing and applying for public transport tickets could become easier—people should not have to buy tickets from different locations during the commute—these systems can be replaced by digital platforms);
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- A platform to keep records and perform transactions;
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- A digital system for tickets, receipts, confirmations, and other aspects of the trip will reduce the hassle, such as the lack of a subscription to a possible check—valid for both commuters and passengers.
- 3.
- Environmental
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- A 8.7% lower consumption for high-performance buses in terms of energy per passenger per mile than using the personal car;
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- A total of 20% less carbon monoxide emissions per passenger than personal vehicles (single passenger);
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- A total of 10% fewer hydrocarbons per passenger.
4. Materials, Methods and Results
4.1. Google Trend Analysis
4.2. Search Strings and Databases Search Results
4.2.1. WOS Database
4.2.2. SCOPUS Database
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- Between August 2018—2022—36 articles were identified;
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- English language—36 articles were identified (see in Table 5).
4.2.3. ScienceDirect
4.3. VOS View Tools
4.4. Journals Where Research Was Published
5. Discussion
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- Every payment is secured;
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- Each person that performs this form of mobility will be able to view the number of tokens they possess and those used for different payments or contributions to the state;
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- Increased people’s confidence to carry out mobility with the means of transport provided by public transport in charge of the local public authority or the transport operator;
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- The possibility to increase the efficiency of the local traffic;
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- Reducing the use of private cars;
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- Reduction of greenhouse gases with the advantage of a consistent decrease in air gases level;
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- Reducing traffic accidents;
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- As for contributions regarding the public transport management, the major advantage is to promote public transport services.
6. Conclusions
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- A classification of the research carried out on the transport of persons, taking into account several criteria for main subsystems of the public transport system;
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- Based on the critical analysis performed, the main features of a new public transport platform based on blockchain technology are identified;
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- The results presented can help interested researchers to identify ways to encourage people to use public transport, giving up personal cars, and to ensure their confidence in data privacy and passenger safety.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reference | Blockchain from Public Transport Services Perspective | Public Transport Services Considered | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Objectives | Technical Issues | Environmental Impact | Security | Challenges and Solutions | EVs | PTT | PTS | PTE | PTM | |
[1] | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✓ | ✕ | ✓ |
[2] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✓ | ✓ |
[3] | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✕ |
[4] | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✕ | ✕ |
[5] | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✓ |
[6] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
[7] | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✕ | ✕ | ✕ | ✕ |
[8] | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✓ |
This survey | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Ref. | Domain | Objectives | Results | Technology | Advantages and Opportunities |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[22] | Electric vehicles used by urban commuters | V2V energy trading (Vehicle to Vehicle) | The utility and strength of the proposed solution, for the electric vehicles in the consortium, decreases by 36% in terms of charging cost, and the revenues of those who sell energy increases by 33%. | Blockchain | The cost of charging decreases by 36%, and the revenues of those who sell energy increases by 33%. |
[23] | Electric vehicle charging | Electricity trading—charging electric vehicles. Smart contract. | Electricity trading model—charging electric vehicles and comparing with the traditional scheme. | Blockchain | Security, trust and efficiency. Execution speed is higher, calculations and execution are slower in time, data cannot be changed. Opportunities to use machine learning and artificial intelligence technologies as one gets closer to the place of loading. |
[24] | Electric vehicle charging | Building smart infrastructure. | Loading electric vehicles using a blockchain-based platform. | Blockchain | 50% increase in performance compared to the normal charging system. If the charging network needs to be expanded, the costs will be higher than the proposed software solution. |
[25] | Energy trading for electric vehicles. | Power supply for electric vehicles in smart city. | V2V and V2G energy marketing; Ethereum Resistance Security models are being studied. | Blockchain | The proposed system is powerful for external attacks, it is validated as high performance. For both V2G and V2V, energy trading is done efficiently. |
[26] | Energy trading | V2G (Vehicle to Grid) trading | Building a blockchain architecture. Smart contracts; scheduling the loading and unloading of electric vehicles. | Blockchain; smart contract. | Realization of an experimental trading platform, with the help of which the trading can be validated. Future research will look at the road network, traffic flow and spatial factors that may disrupt the suggested pattern. |
[27] | Transportation transactions | Transactions | Track, manage and validate transactions, and optimize transport applications taking advantage of its ecosystem. Model making. | PoUW-based blockchain | Model making and rewarding miners. The proposed method reduces energy consumption. |
[28] | Electric vehicle shared charging. | Shared upload architecture. | Fast search, secure storage, computing and incentives. | Blockchain | Increasing the security of the proposed architecture for sharing the load of electric vehicles. |
[29] | Electric vehicle charging | Making models, faster and better smart contracts. | A new model of smart contract, validated with real data from Beijing, China. | Blockchain; smart contract. | The proposed mathematical model decreases the complexity of the calculations, which was followed by numerical experiments. For the future, the aim is to research the cross-chain through the blockchain, connecting more data to achieve a smart society. |
[30] | Data and energy trading—electric vehicles | Data trading between vehicles. Charging/unloading electric cars by trading energy. | Development of an IoEV that ensures data security and reliability. | Blockchain; smart contract. | Efficient data validation system by removing duplicates, which reduces storage costs. The technique of hiding accounts is used to protect information. |
[31] | Electric vehicle charging—smart city | Energy trading architecture. | Energy trading platform from local renewable energy producers with optimal charging planning and at advantageous prices. | Blockchain; smart contracts—on the Ethereum private network. | Testing was performed at peak hours in crowded cities. |
[32] | Electric vehicle charging—anonymous | Anonymous charging system for electric cars | Security and anonymity regarding the location and the person. | Blockchain; smart contract. | Use of smart contracts to complete the transaction ensures data security and maintaining confidentiality. |
[33] | Buildings, power supply | Grid networks—powering buildings and electric cars. | Green energy trading platform for buildings and electric vehicles. | Blockchain | Go through and present the current stage in the use of blockchain in the sale of existing renewable energy in buildings and electric cars. |
[34] | Electric cars. Loading, energy trading | Energy trading. | Energy trading platform. | Blockchain | Decreased charging costs and increased revenues for electric cars that sell electricity compared to the existing system. |
[35] | Charging electric vehicles in the city | Case study—charging electric vehicles. | Charging solution platform from private energy producers. | Blockchain | Improving the sharing system for faster charging of electric vehicles. |
[36] | Electric vehicle charging | Data security. | Selection of the optimal miner. Miners are selected by calculating data quality, trust and confidentiality. | Blockchain | Compared to the logical approach, the selection rate of the corresponding miner from the malicious one is improved. For the future, the development of the study is aimed at increasing the number of blocks. |
Ref. | Domain | Objectives | Results | Technology | Advantages and Opportunities |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[8,36] | Smart communities | Using blockchain technology for smart communities. | Study of the different process methods used for secured transactions. | Blockchain | Detailed presentation of applications, providing support that provides the necessary communications infrastructure for applications. |
[37] | Regional vehicle internet authentication | Vehicle Internet (IoV)—IoT application in transportation. | Designing a simple, low-power authentication scheme. In operation on the schema, XOR, hash functions, and symmetric encryption are used. IoV has low resource consumption. | Blockchain | Low resource consumption. The data are collected and will allow the blockchain to record the nodes. |
[38] | Communications—intelligent transport | Data security scheme. | Data encryption system. Decryption takes place after verification and the launch of the smart contract. | Blockchain | High security system by encrypting/decrypting traffic information. |
[39] | GPS vehicle | Vehicle positioning in the area. | Prediction algorithm based on neural network. | Blockchain | Reduce as much as possible the errors caused by the fact that some of the vehicles are equipped with data sensors and others do not have such equipment, and for this reason there are errors in indicating the position of the vehicle at a given time. |
[40] | Intelligent freight transport | Solution developed for local freight networks. | Smart contracts based on Ethereum. | Blockchain REF, IoT | Data privacy. Smart contract trading. Track parcel route (location) during transport. |
Ref. | Domain | Objectives | Results | Technology | Advantages and Opportunities |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[41] | Smart urban transport | Distributed network—urban transport. | A distributed network for collecting data from sensors in the equipment: vehicles, road infrastructure, vehicle congestion check. | Blockchain, IoT | A network distributed with sensors from a locality. Data are collected from both moving and parked vehicles from the atmosphere. They are stored in nodes that in turn communicate with each other. |
[42] | Port operations and maritime transport management | Applications and architectures. | Solutions for the use of blockchain in maritime logistics | Blockchain | Discussed applications and proposals of private architects (Hyperledger Fabric and Hyperledger Besu) to show their importance in port activity. |
[43] | Communication between vehicles | Detect node that emits false messages. | Security and message fidelity. | Blockchain | Identify fake messages. |
[44] | International passenger transport | International transport management. | Self-sovereign identity is applied in public transport management for economic operators in several countries. | Blockchain | The system analyzes how the single travel card is used for all travel providers. It is a concept by which a person better manages identity credentials through self-sovereign identity. |
[45] | Smart parking | Secure and fast parking system. | Smart parking in smart cities, privacy. | Blockchain | Offering drivers the opportunity to park their cars in the right place. |
[46] | Electric vehicles | CO2 pollution reduction | Sandbox blockchain translation simulation platform. Ethereum. | Blockchain | A platform with a mobile/desktop application has been developed. Supervision is done using the QR code. |
[47] | Vehicle internet—management | Optimal loading group adherence scheme. | When doing so, take into account the number of vehicles in the area. | Blockchain | The best choice for trading by joining a block. |
[48] | Economic confidentiality—intelligent transport system | System for maintaining data confidentiality. | Self-defense measures are taken by the proposed system. | Blockchain | The proposed scheme was evaluated with superior performance in terms of the number of pseudonyms that are mixed. |
[49] | Public transport | Stimulating smart vehicles. Traffic improvement—message generation. | The scheme is superior to the existing one. Drivers are stimulated by virtual currency to provide accurate information. | Blockchain | This technology helps to store the correct data and asses the confidentiality of correct data and respectively to stimulate the people who contribute to the creation of a correct information base. |
[50] | Traffic decongestion | Solution offered in order to decongest the traffic and pollute the environment in the locality. | Achieving better results than using current technologies. | Cloud Intelligent Vehicles and Vehicle Ad hoc NETwork (VANET), Blockchain 5G and B5G | Cloud computing, enhanced with blockchain and fog computing, allows to improve latency performance and scalability and avoid traffic jams by tracking the location of the vehicle. |
[51] | Transport—traffic decongestion | Traffic decongestion | A platform for setting tolls, prioritizing emergencies, and transporting heavy trucks and towed vehicles. | Blockchain | Fast and clearly superior results, but the amount of information grows exponentially, so in the future, the use of Big Data will be considered. |
[52] | Transport | Culture protection—museums; object distribution and knowledge sharing. | Real-time monitoring, with high security of exhibits from one museum to another through the combined support of IoT and blockchain. | Blockchain, IoT | Real-time tracking of the transport of museum objects, without incident, with high security. |
[53] | Smart mobility | Security; assessing the risks of cyber-attacks in mobility/transport. | Three-stage analysis: establishing study participants, analyzing scenarios that may cause problems, and a combined analysis to determine the increased risks and impact they bring from a financial, confidential, trustworthy, and integrity level. | Publicly authorized blockchain | The larger the false information, the more vulnerabilities are introduced into the system. In future works, it is desired to bring concrete solutions to achieve these problems. |
Search | Engine and Search Strings | Nr. of Papers |
---|---|---|
WOS | Citation Report: public transport services, (Keyword Plus®) AND public transport technology (Keyword Plus®) AND public transport and the environment (Keyword Plus®) OR public transport management (Keyword Plus®) OR public transport electric vehicles (Keyword Plus®) AND Blockchain (Keyword Plus®) and 2010 or 2012 or 2013 or 2014 or 2015 or 2016 or 2017 (Exclude—Publication Years) | 60 |
2018–2022 and keywords | 42 | |
Scopus | TITLE-ABS-KEY ((public AND transport AND technology), (public AND transport AND services), (public AND transport AND the AND environmental), ((public AND transport AND management)) | 116 |
TITLE-ABS-KEY ((public AND transport AND technology), (public AND transport AND services), (public AND transport AND the AND environmental), ((public AND transport AND management))) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2017) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2016) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2015) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2014) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2013)) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2012) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2011) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2010) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2009) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2008)) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2007) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2006) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2005) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2004) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2003)) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2002) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 1999) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 1998) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 1997) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 1994)) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 1990) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 1989)) | 40 | |
TITLE-ABS-KEY ((public AND transport AND technology), (public AND transport AND services), (public AND transport AND the AND environmental), ((public AND transport AND management))) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2017) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2016) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2015) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2014) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2013)) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2012) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2011) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2010) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2009) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2008)) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2007) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2006) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2005) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2004) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2003)) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2002) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 1999) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 1998) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 1997) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 1994)) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 1990) OR EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 1989)) AND (EXCLUDE (SUBJAREA, “AGRI”)) AND (EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “Chinese”) OR EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “Persian”)) | 36 | |
Science Direct |
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Revision Type | Application Concept | Practical Results | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Blockchain evolution | Database | General summary | [1] |
Using blockchain technology | Sounding | Transport summary | [2] |
Data storage | User access | Key user access summary | [3] |
Blockchain vulnerabilities | x | x | [4] |
Mobility and smart transportation—smart city | Suggest a platform | Suggestions for future research | [5] |
Revision in transport | x | x | [6] |
Using blockchain technology | x | Results for future research | [7] |
Revision in transport | x | x | [8] |
Revision in transport | x | x | [9] |
Data storage | x | x | [10] |
Revision in transport | x | x | [11] |
Revision in transport | x | x | [12] |
Data storage | x | x | [13] |
Blockchain vulnerabilities | x | x | [14] |
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Enescu, F.M.; Birleanu, F.G.; Raboaca, M.S.; Bizon, N.; Thounthong, P. A Review of the Public Transport Services Based on the Blockchain Technology. Sustainability 2022, 14, 13027. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013027
Enescu FM, Birleanu FG, Raboaca MS, Bizon N, Thounthong P. A Review of the Public Transport Services Based on the Blockchain Technology. Sustainability. 2022; 14(20):13027. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013027
Chicago/Turabian StyleEnescu, Florentina Magda, Fernando Georgel Birleanu, Maria Simona Raboaca, Nicu Bizon, and Phatiphat Thounthong. 2022. "A Review of the Public Transport Services Based on the Blockchain Technology" Sustainability 14, no. 20: 13027. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013027