About twenty years ago, when relevant research started in 1998, most studies focused on the Not In My Backyard (NIMBY) syndrome as the main cause of negative attitudes towards WPs. However, unlike previous research, Wolsink’s research [
7] presented society’s rejection of WPs as a multi-faceted issue. According to him, the factors that influence citizens’ opinions about WPs are mainly institutional. Specifically, he addressed the importance of open procedures in land-use planning and, more generally, the possibility of open participation in the approval and planning processes for WPs. Finally, he asserted that politicians, policy decision makers and investors should focus on the proper growth and expansion of projects rather than on citizens’ reactions.
2.1. Wind Parks and Society
Society’s influence in the acceptance and integration of RES projects is a fact, as are doubts about these structures. In particular, fragmented information, mainly from social media, accompanies these conflicts. The prevailing perceptions in the context of the negative impact [
8] of WPs on their area of establishment concern the impact on flora and fauna, mainly on local birds, as well as land occupation and the audio-visual nuisances that may occur because of their construction and operation. These perceptions, taken together, lead to the conclusion that the quality of life of the inhabitants and, more generally, the ecosystem of the wider area of the project, will be damaged.
A wind project has impacts on the ecosystem, both during its construction and operation [
9]. The required fuel used to transport the equipment to the installation site, as well as that used to build the individual parts of the wind turbines, are part of the environmental cost, along with the audio-visual nuisances [
10] that may agitate the ecosystem. These nuisances are an event that may cause a split in feelings towards a WP, as there is not a specific direction of public opinion.
Land occupation can also be examined in conjunction with other factors that have been studied and negatively affect the acceptance of a wind facility. In the first instance, it is related to the connection local residents have to nature nearby [
11]. If this connection is strong, then it is difficult for the project to be accepted, as people find it hard to adjust to changes in their home environment. Moreover, there is a lack of trust in local authorities, and the perception that existing legislation is being violated; it is thought that areas that should be protected or maintained as they are are being illegally occupied [
12].
However, there are other reasons leading to the above conclusions, such as a lack of confidence in investors [
13], as well as the lack of reliability in the processes of design, development, construction, and operation of these structures. When it comes to a project which means a significant change for a large number of people nearby and, therefore, in their daily lives, a different approach is required, through which respect is shown to them and their environment.
Table 1 refers to nine important already published studies that have taken place in different regions in order to identify people’s attitude towards WPs, and also the reasons driving these perceptions.
The formation of mutual trust between investors and society is influenced not only by their direct relationship, but also by the relationship of local authorities with both parties [
24]. The negative attitude of local authorities towards the project causes citizens to doubt as well, as they are usually represented by local, elected politicians and cannot have direct contact with the administrators and investors. On the other hand, the very positive treatment of wind farms by local authorities usually leads to controversy and mistrust about transparency.
Demographics also contribute to the attitude of the population towards WPs. In other words, there is a general picture that women are the most sensitive to environmental issues [
25], as well as young people [
26]. Lower-income groups tend to be more opposed to these projects because they are busy making a living and do not have the opportunity to engage in the “commons”. Moreover, these people usually feel that they have been exploited and treated unfairly, which does not make it easy for them to trust the local authorities or the investors.
Finally, the fact that many fossil fuel power plants are closing and giving way to renewable energy parks, leaving many people without jobs, creates a negative climate with respect to these facilities [
27]. It is necessary to develop a plan for forthcoming jobs and especially for the sectors in which these people can be professionally retrained.
2.2. Pathways to Deal with the Arisen Conflicts
Although negative attitudes towards wind power projects are inevitable, there are ways to address the objections that arise, in order to improve the installation and operation of WPs with the lowest possible tension. It is, therefore, necessary to explore the point of balance between society and investors, as this means that the necessary concessions have been reached by both sides, aiming at achieving the objectives of both parties.
First, it is important to provide comprehensive information and education on the real impacts and benefits of wind power projects [
28]. These can be more easily understood by comparing WPs with conventional methods of energy generation. In addition, there is a need for continuous information on individual projects, but also on RES in general, as it is an industry that is constantly evolving in terms of the technologies developed for its use. These processes should consider the principle that while RES are clean forms, the technologies used to exploit them are not fully clean.
Besides, the environmental advantages of exploiting wind energy compared to conventional energy production methods are a major argument that could stimulate the acceptance of WPs [
29]. Energy generation using wind potential initially helps to reduce gas emissions. Also, the energy used for the creation and installation of WPs, is, according to studies, fully restored during the life of a project.
Furthermore, landscape alteration and audio-visual nuisance can be managed initially through careful management of construction works. In this way, violent and intense changes to the environment are avoided, and the ecosystem is given sufficient lead time to integrate the project. Of course, these impairments can also be minimised before this stage, as there are different ways of determining the damage caused by a WP, depending on its technical characteristics and location. By using research tools such as the Spanish method [
30] for calculating the visual nuisance of a WP [
31], a clear determination of the level of disturbance at each site can be achieved, and thus the best spatial planning and, accordingly, the best technical characteristics of the project.
In addition, it is particularly important to address the issues that are raised by local people who see the facility as a catalyst for accomplishing their tasks. Thus, it is noteworthy that a WP consists of wind turbines that have relatively large distances between them. Given this, there is an opportunity to develop the project site with other land uses such as agriculture and livestock [
32].
While WPs are generally expected to adapt to and have less impact on the ecosystem after construction, the same does not apply to the flying populations of the installation area [
33]. The high mortality rate of avifauna and bats has undeniably caused a great stir, so the need to manage them is also evident. For this reason, various studies are being conducted on how to protect the ecosystem from wind turbines and technologies developed for this purpose which are already in use. By replacing smaller wind turbines with those of greater height and power, a 54% reduction in the mortality of flying species was found in California [
34].
More practical ways of dealing with the impact on wildlife are also mentioned. De Lucas et al. [
35] referred to the temporary closure of WPs at times when the risk to wildlife is considered to be higher. A 50% reduction in griffon vulture mortality was observed. For the protection of bats, in particular, technology was used to emit the ultrasonic echoes that are perceived by the bats. The number of bats dying decreased by 64% [
36]. In addition, practices related to the visual protection of species, such as dyeing a fin so it is seen more easily by birds, or using reflective ultraviolet paint on rotor blades for UV-sensitive species, are also quite common [
37].
Moreover, there are more direct ways to positively influence citizens’ opinions on WPs. In particular, the economic and environmental incentives as well as the climate of trust between citizens, local authorities and investors can play a special role in achieving this objective, and therefore deserves to be considered separately and integrated into a policy for the management of such facilities. When analysing the incentives and conditions required to strengthen the acceptance of WPs, perhaps the existing legislation should also be mentioned [
38].
There is no doubt that financial incentives are crucial for the smooth running of a project without much tension on the part of society [
39]. Similarly, in the case of a wind project, applied financial motivations already exist that can be used to restore the sense of justice for citizens [
40,
41], such as financial compensation, mainly by reducing or even paying off the power bill, the creation of new jobs, and the possibility of public participation in project investment, as well as contributory projects. The economic easing of costs as well as new jobs are two crucial compensations which can lead to project acceptance, especially at this time, when approximately 9.2% of the world, or 689 million people, live in extreme poverty, according to the World Bank [
42].
In addition, the rewards mentioned above constitute projects offered by the manufacturing and holding companies of the WPs and provide direct benefits to local societies. The aim of these projects is to upgrade the residents of the WPs area, quality of life, develop the area itself and, more generally, serve citizens. Such a project is the upgrading of the road network that, beyond the life of the citizens, facilitates the realisation of the project.
Participation in the investment, i.e., through energy communities, is already a tested business model [
43]. Such a plan offers greater security for the project and intensifies the trust climate between citizens and investors since, in theory, citizens have easier access to the core of the project processes. The literature asserts that the impact or not of a participation plan also depends on demographics and speaks of the exceptional importance of creating equal opportunities for all in participatory projects [
44].
It is well known that there is a lack of fairness as not everyone is able to participate in investment, because of the structure of the society we live in [
45]. However, there are ways to create more equal opportunities for a wider public. Firstly, the introduction of a minimum amount of participation which is feasible for the majority of citizens, and, at the opposite end, a maximum amount, which would prevent the most well-off people from buying a large part of the investment, is one such way. Furthermore, the imposition of a mandatory tender procedure for a substantial part of the investment in public funds could make a positive contribution to this objective.
To conclude, the need to smooth the tensions between society and investors is recognised, but equally understandable should be the fact that we are referring to a two-way relationship. The nature of this relationship shows that to strike a balance between the two, both financial exchanges and retreats are required from investors on issues related to the technical elements and the way the project is developed, implemented and operated, as well as retreats and understanding from citizens on the same issues.