4.2. IK Indicators of Seasonal Rainfall Forecasting
Local communities around the world observe living creatures and dead entities in order to predict the future and the current weather variables. With repeated observations of biophysical proxies and the events associated with these observations, predictions, feedback, and readjusting relationship cycles, it is possible to safely predict the future (albeit not quantifiably). All forms of outcomes including a rainy season, a drought, and a windy season are considered as good lessons that help indigenous people to be better attuned with their environment and make them more capable of understanding and predicting future weather and climate events [
24].
Bugis–Makassar farmers plan the cultivation of rice through
Lontara Allaorumang’s book, which discusses traditional knowledge linked to agricultural systems based on natural phenomena, especially plant phenology and animal behavior, as well as celestial phenomena studied over a long period of time (
Table 4). The results show that farmers use a combination of biological and celestial indicators to forecast seasonal weather conditions and make important rice farming decisions. Traditionally, these indicators trigger the start of farming-related activities depending on the significance of the indicator. Therefore, the Bugis–Makassar people can understand and be aware of those changes closely related to abnormal weather. In fact, the use of fauna and flora for weather forecasting is applied by many indigenous groups or small farmers over the world, especially those who have a weak connection to science-related information on weather forecasting [
26,
31].
However, the IK is slowly disappearing and being eroded, and this ultimately raises the question of how much longer the system can sustain itself. In line with this finding, previous researchers found the decline in or loss of IK over recent years to be the dominant trend in many parts of the world [
47,
48,
49]. It is believed that this is due to the changing nature of knowledge, as the elderly are being replaced by the young and middle-aged, who seem to be more concerned with modernization than taking up this knowledge. Furthermore, many studies have shown a correlation between age and knowledge [
50], which suggests that knowledge accumulates with age and decreases with each successive generation [
51,
52]. The challenges facing IK seasonal forecasting include a poor knowledge transfer system, insufficient documentation, death of forecast experts, and influence of modern education. Other factors threatening IK indicators include the extinction of some plants and animals, destruction of vegetation resulting from rapid urbanization, and high population growth [
27].
Given this background, we suggest that a systematic documentation of the IK indicator is required in the near future if these indicators are to be preserved as a basis for decision making. Furthermore, an in-depth analysis is needed in order to understand how the IK indicators are used for forecasting and the context in which the indicators are used. This also includes investigating the accuracy, reliability, and validity of IK indicators for seasonal climate forecasting.
4.3. Farmer’s Understanding of IK in Rice Farming Practices
In response to their opinions on the IK in rice farming according to the semi-structured interview, it can be assumed that all 36 respondents had knowledge about IK practices, as described in
Figure 4. Meanwhile, all 36 respondents completed the interview. It can be seen that most of the respondents had a low education status; however, they were able to understand and answer the questions.
Table 5 provides detailed background characteristics of the respondents.
According to the interview, two of the 11 rice farming activities, namely Mengngala (harvesting using Rakkapeng) and Maddese (seed separation), are no longer practiced, even though respondents were familiar with these activities. The use of Rakkapeng for harvesting has been replaced by using a hand tractor, while Maddase is no longer needed because farmers already use labeled seeds.
The involvement of farmers under the age of 35 was very limited to some activities, especially those related to pest control such as Maddongi and Manggepik Ase. Young farmers were more engaged in activities related to planting (Mattaneng) and land preparation (Mangesse). With the development of technology, some IK in rice cultivation has begun to erode because technology has made all jobs easier and more convenient. They are applied within a short time frame, thereby increasing rice production.
On the other hand, most of the indigenous farmer practices and knowledge at the different stages of agricultural activities are cheap and easy to obtain. Moreover, most export markets now prefer organic foods produced by this category of farmers, and this offers them an opportunity to improve their income. Most IK of the Bugis–Makassar tribe in rice farming practices is still ongoing because the Tudang Sipulung event still takes place at the village and district level. This could be incorporated into research to enrich the research process and make it more relevant for the farmers.
4.4. Tudang Sipulung
Prior to planting rice, the Bugis–Makasssar community practices a culture deliberation that involves making decisions while sitting together, which is known as Tudang Sipulung. Tudang Sipulung conducted at the village level is led by the village head and attended by community leaders, Pallontara/Pappananrang, head of farmer groups, extension workers, observers of plant pest organisms (POPT), farmers, chairman of the Water User Farmers Association (P3A), and head of the Agricultural Extension Center (BPP).
Pallontara and Pappananrang propose the suitable time to sow seeds such that the need for rainfall and sunlight is satisfied, and they anticipate the likelihood of pests and diseases attacking the rice. On the basis of the results of the discussion, the village head makes notes regarding the planting time, type of variety, and the need for the amount of seed and fertilizer to be submitted at the Tudang Sipulung event at the district level about 1–2 weeks later. Before Tudang Sipulung is implemented, agricultural activities in the rice fields are not undertaken by the agricultural community.
The Tudang Sipulung event in the district is led by the Regent and attended by
Pallontara and
Pappananrang, the heads of the relevant agencies (namely, head of the Assessment Institute for Agricultural Technology (BPTP), head of the Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysics Agency (BMKG), head of the Center for Food Crops and Horticulture Protection, head of Bank Units (BRI/BNI), head of Pupuk Sriwijaya (ferlilizer producer), head of P3A), the Farmers’ Union, researchers, and extension workers. The stages of the implementation of Tudang Sipulung are described in
Figure 5.
4.5. Integration of Local and Scientific Knowledge in Rice Farming in South Sulawesi
Tudang Sipulung is a true example of the integration of local knowledge and scientific knowledge related to the rice farming system. In the Tudang Sipulung event at the district level, the BMKG delivers rainfall forecasts for the next 6 months, especially regarding the beginning of the rainy season, the nature, and the seasonal changes related to agricultural business. Pallontara and Pappananrang convey the agreement at the village level, while researchers of the BPTP convey the recommended planting time according to the ICCIS recommendation, the availability of the latest cultivation technology, types of quality rice varieties, and pest and disease control technology. Meanwhile, the POPT reports the probability of pests and diseases attacking rice fields.
The recommended planting time delivered by BPTP is accessed from the ICCIS website. Researchers of BPTP are members of the task force team of the ICCIS. The task force team is responsible for disseminating the ICCIS to farmers and extension workers, in collaboration with other agencies in the regions, such as the BMKG, extension offices, and agricultural offices [
46].
The agreement on planting period and cultivation practices is reached on the basis of an agreement among Pallontara, Pappananrang, BMKG, POPT, and BPTP. The Tudang Sipulung event results in several conclusions, including (1) the onset of planting time based on Pallontara/Pappananrang, BMKG predictions, and ICCIS recommendations, (2) variety types agreed to be planted on the basis of pest and disease forecasts and rainfall, (3) prediction of pests and diseases that are likely to appear according to suggestions from Pallontara/Pappananrang and researchers from the BPTP and POPT, (4) rice cultivation techniques such as spacing and fertilization, and harvesting and post-harvesting, (5) yearly cropping patterns, and (6) availability of facilities and infrastructure for farming systems.
The difference that often takes place includes the right time of planting according to Pallontara/Pappananrang, BMKG predictions, and the planting time recommended by the BPTP. If the recommended planting time differs, there are discussions and arguments. If the two arguments are strong, then common ground is reached between the two planting periods. However, if a party’s argument is more persuasive, then the planting time of that party’s proposal is agreed upon.
Through this agreement, the planting time and variety type can be standardized to ensure that pests can be properly controlled through collective action. This can be done by making use of irrigation water more efficiently. As a guide to cultivating rice the following year for the rainy and dry seasons, the agreement is compiled in the form of a book called Tudang Sipulung, and the manual is distributed to the subdistrict head, village head, extension workers, and POPT for transmission to the farming community.
In the case when there is a village with unique resource conditions that are different from those of other villages and it is difficult to comply with agreed recommendations, then the implementation of the Tudang Sipulung agreement is left to the head of the village to decide, depending on local conditions. For example, in Wette Village in Sidrap District, the rain characteristics are more similar to those in Soppeng. The start of the rainy season in the village is in December–January. Meanwhile, the beginning of the rainy season in Sidrap District is predominantly in April–May. For these areas, the decision on planting time and the technology package to be applied is left to the village head to decide.
In the event that certain parties and/or members of the community fail to comply with the outcome of the Tudang Sipulung agreement, social–institutional sanctions are applied (e.g., not receiving support for agriculture facilities and infrastructure). At the village level, the head of the village gives the penalty in the form of a fine of one bucket of grain, cleaning of irrigation water canals, and cutting of chickens or goats to eat together, which is called Macekrak.
The local culture of Tudang Sipulung has been practiced since ancient times and is currently being facilitated by the Province of South Sulawesi government. The difference between Tudang Sipulung (currently under implementation) and what was previously practiced by the farmers is that it incorporates local knowledge with scientific knowledge into decision- making. Decisions are made on the basis of an understanding between the government and farmers according to shared interests. In addition, the Tudang Sipulung agreement is a guideline that should be respected and followed in future agricultural management. Moreover, through the Tudang Sipulung event, the local government also broadcasts local government programs and national policies. Tudang Sipulung’s decisions have been found to be highly effective in increasing rice production and reducing the risk of drought and pest attacks. As a result, Tudang Sipulung has been expanded to Wajo, Takalar, Bone, and other districts in South Sulawesi, previously being practiced only by the Sidrap community. The benefits of Tudang Sipulung have enabled this event to continue and be supported by the government.
4.6. Future Challenges
One of the research outcomes of the Indonesian Agricultural Research and Development Agency that has been widely used and is readily accessible is the ICCIS. The ICCIS describes potential planting time patterns for food crops, particularly rice, maize, and soybeans, according to climate and water resources [
53]. The use of information on planting time, in combination with other information such as areas prone to flood, and drought and pest attacks, as well as varieties, fertilizer recommendations, availability of farm machinery, and feed adequacy, may serve as a reference for decision makers in the preparation of food crop management [
54]. The ICCIS is also equipped with information to support the agriculture system and minimize climate hazards. The information includes (a) fertilizer recommendations, (b) agricultural machinery availability, (c) potential livestock feed, (d) potential crops damaged due to flood, drought, pests, and diseases, and (e) variety recommendations [
46]. The same information is discussed in the Tudang Sipulung to decide the planting time and rice farming practices for the upcoming growing season.
An example of incorporating local knowledge into scientific knowledge is to confirm the outcomes of ICCIS recommendations for planting time and predictions of
Pallontara/Pappanarang planting times in the Tudang Sipulung event. The planting time in the ICCIS is built using information on the start of the BMKG rainy season and water balance analysis to determine the appropriate planting time, depending on the availability and water needs of the crops. Similarly, recommendations for potential floods, droughts, and outbreaks of plant pests and diseases are also available from the ICCIS. Recommendations on the planting timeframe resulting from the Tudang Sipulung agreement with the ICCIS planting timeframe for wet season planting (WSP) and dry season planting (DSP) for the 2018–2021 period are detailed in
Table 6.
The recommendations for the planting period agreed by Tudang Sipulung and the ICCIS for the period 2018–2021 were largely identical, because both used the seasonal forecast from BMKG. The difference is that the Tudang Sipulung planting time agreement uses local wisdom taking into account the BMKG predictions, whereas the ICCIS uses BMKG forecasts as an input for water balance analysis. Differences in planting time recommendations occurred for DSP 2019 and DSP 2021 in the Takkalalla Subdistrict of Wajo District. The recommended planting time according to Tudang Sipulung was one to two decades earlier. For the Panca Lautang Subdistrict, differences occurred for the recommended planting time for WSP 2019/2020 and WSP 2020/2021, which was two decades earlier and two decades later, respectively. The recommended planting time for Gallesong Subdistrict of Takalar District was the same during this period. The planting time recommendations for the Tellu Settianngeng Subdistrict of Bone District were different for the 2019 DSP, 2020/2021/WSP, and 2021 DSP, following Tudang Sipulung’s recommendations of one decade (10 days) earlier.
By practicing rice cultivation according to the Tudang Sipulung agreement, especially if there are differences, it is very important to make a decision that can be accepted by all parties. Therefore, to avoid conflict in decision making, identifying appropriate ways to work with indigenous and scientific knowledge is critical to the success of knowledge partnerships [
55]. According to Wheeler et al. [
56], most importantly, consultation and collaboration processes can determine how the knowledge is collected and used, which is acceptable to all parties.
The consistent implementation of the Tudang Sipulung agreement by the local government is an effort to preserve local wisdom as a culture and cultural identity of a region, tribe, and community group. The legitimacy and credibility of science is most evident to scientists, while indigenous or local knowledge is most evident to the indigenous and local knowledge holders. Those who bridge the integration process need to have particular value [
57], whereby local governments can implement binding regulations.
Decision making through the participation of scientific institutions such as the BMKG, researchers, and pest observers is an integration of local wisdom and scientific knowledge. This integration of traditional and modern systems requires a shared understanding of cultural and scientific material [
43]. Integration of the ICCIS is an interesting challenge in enriching the sources of information in Tudang Sipulung’s decision making. According to Castro and Nielsen [
58], a collaboration between the IK holders and policymakers could provide an excellent opportunity to resolve or avoid resource management conflicts. In addition, the involvement of agricultural extension workers and farmer groups is very important in agricultural development intervention [
59,
60] for transmitting IK technologies, practices, and problems from farmers to policymakers and researchers [
61].
The ICCIS, as one of the research outcomes of the Indonesian Agricultural Research and Development Agency, is widely used and well known by extension workers, and it can be integrated with IK of the Bugis–Makassar tribe for adjusting planting time and implementing rice farming practices. Local engagement in research may increase the capacity to influence decisions and accelerate their implementation [
29,
30]. With respect to Tudang Sipulung, it is best to engage young farmers who understand information technologies and their implementation in agriculture, such as the ICCIS. Additionally, opportunities for young farmers to learn about local wisdom in rice farming practices should be provided.