Plastic Waste Management in India: Challenges, Opportunities, and Roadmap for Circular Economy
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Plastic Production and PW
Polymer Type and Chemical Structure. | Resin Identification Code | General Application as Virgin Material | Properties | Toxic Chemical Present | Advantage | Challenges | Recycled Products |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) | Bottle application because they are inexpensive, lightweight, and shatter-resistant | Clarity, strength, toughness, barrier to gas and moisture | BPA, leach antimony | More convenient (less energy intensive) for chemical recycling (catalytic methods) than thermolysis | Costly thermochemical process and hazardous byproduct generation, fiber quality is less purified than recycled material, toxic production process for nanoparticles | Mineral/drinking water bottles, cosmetic bottles | |
High-density polyethylene (HDPE, or PE-HD) | Bottles, carry bags, milk pouches, recycle bins, etc. | Stiffness, strength, toughness, moisture resistance, permeability to gas | Unknown | Less extraction of fossil fuel, less dependence on petrochemical production, more convenient (less energy intensive) for chemical recycling (catalytic methods) than thermolysis | Expensive conversion process (isolation and purification), less effective mechanical properties than conventional recycled material | Tubes, sewer pipes, pallets, boxes, buckets, toys, bottles for detergents, construction, cable insulation, packaging of food products | |
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) | For pipes and fittings, tarpaulins, medical apps., etc. | Versatility, ease of blending, strength, toughness | Phthalates | Less extraction of fossil fuel, reduced volume to landfill, less dependence on petrochemical production, more convenient (less energy intensive) for chemical recycling (catalytic methods) than thermolysis | Fiber quality is less purified than recycled material, expensive conversion process (isolation and purification), less effective mechanical properties than conventional recycled material | Sewer pipes, window frames, construction, flooring, wallpaper, bottles, car interiors, medical products, planks, etc.) | |
Low/linear low-density polyethylene (LDPE/LLDPE) | Plastic bags, various containers, dispensing bottles, wash bottles, tubing, etc. | Ease of processing, strength, toughness, flexibility, ease of sealing, barrier to moisture | Unknown | Less extraction of fossil fuel, utilized as mixed plastic, ink affinity, hydrophobicity, durablility, less dependence on petrochemical production, more convenient (less energy intensive) for chemical recycling (catalytic methods) than thermolysis | Relatively complex process for the reduction in variability in thermal and mechanical properties, hazardous solvent utilization, expensive conversion process (isolation and purification), less effective mechanical properties than conventional recycled material | Flexible packaging, bin liners, carrier bags, tubes, agricultural mulch film, agricultural sheet, construction film, cling-film, heavy-duty sacks | |
Polypropylene/polypropene (PP) | Auto parts, industrial fibers, food containers, etc. | Strength, toughness, resistance to heat, chemicals, grease and oil, versatility, barrier to moisture | Unknown | Less extraction of fossil fuel, utilized as mixed plastic, reduced volume to landfill, convenient and less toxic component utilization in processing, lucrative applications in multiple advanced technologies | Relatively complex process for the reduction in variability in thermal and mechanical properties, fiber quality is less purified than recycled material, unwanted wax production affects equipment, toxic production process for nanoparticles | Pipes, pallets, boxes, furniture, car parts, pots of yogurt, buckets, butter, margarine, fibers, milk crates | |
Polystyrene (PS)/expended Polystyrene (PS-E) | Food service packaging, disposable cups, tray pitchers, refrigerators, liners, etc. It may also be used as cushioning materials for fresh produce, electronic or appliance industries, etc. | Versatility, clarity, easy formation | Leaks toxic chemicals when heated | Less extraction of fossil fuel, utilized as mixed plastic, less dependence on petrochemical production, more convenient (less energy intensive) for chemical recycling (catalytic methods) than thermolysis | Expensive conversion process (isolation and purification), less effective mechanical properties than conventional recycled material | Clothes hangers, park benches, flowerpots, toys, spoons, cutlery, picture frames, seeding containers | |
Thermoset plastics | Thermoset plastics, multilayer and laminates, Bakelite, polycarbonate (PC), etc. | Stiffness, hardness, brittleness, chemical and stain resistance, good electrical insulators, non-remoldability | BPA | - | - | CDs, pallets, floors, roofs, furniture, sheeting, benches, shoe soles |
1.2. Research Motivation and Scope of the Article
1.3. Research Contribution of the Article
2. Research Methodology
3. Overview of Plastic Production and WASTE Management in India
3.1. Categories and Sources of PW
3.2. Plastic Production Industry and Consumption in India
3.3. Plastic Consumption by Sectors
3.3.1. Packaging Industry
3.3.2. Agricultural Sector
3.3.3. Construction and Infrastructure
3.3.4. Automobile Manufacturing Sector
3.3.5. Plastics from the Biomedical Sector
3.3.6. Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) Manufacturing Industry
3.3.7. Solar PV and LED Manufacturing Sector
3.4. Assessment on PW Management and Generation in India
3.4.1. PW Generation in India
3.5. Aquatic Pollution and Microplastics in India
Microplastics as Pollutants
3.6. PW Management Rules in India
3.7. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
4. Discussion
4.1. Effective and Sustainable PW Management Strategies
4.2. Restructuring Reverse Supply Chain
4.3. Source-Specific Waste Recovery
4.4. EPR- and PW-Related Rules
4.5. Microplastic Pollution Mitigation
5. Conclusions and Outlook
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Item | India | EU | China | Pakistan | USA | Brazil | South Africa | Australia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population (in millions) (according to 2020) | 1380 (Data source: [24]) | 447.32 (Data source: [25]) | 1410.93 (Data source: [24]) | 220.89 (Data source: [24]) | 329.48 (Data source: [24]) | 212.56 (Data source: [24]) | 59.31 (Data source: [24]) | 25.687 (Data source: [24]) |
Region | Asia | Europe | Asia | Asia | North America | South America | Africa | Oceania |
Plastic production (in Mt) | 22 Mt per year (according to 2020) [26] | Around 55 Mt (in 2020) [27] | 78 Mt (in 2020) [28] | 0.745 Mt (as of 2020) [29] | 49 Mt (in 2019) [30] | 7.1 Mt (as of 2019) (mainly processed plastics) [31] | 9.0 Mt (between 2009 and 2015) [32] | Approximately 1.4 Mt was processed in local manufacturing industries using either virgin resins (both locally manufactured and imported) or recyclate-based resins [33] |
Plastic consumption | 20 kg/capita/year (predicted for 2022) [34]. In 2017–18, total of 16.5 Mt was consumed [35] | 84 and 129 kg per capita per year [36]. 112 kg/person (for the period 2010–2019) [36] | 46 kg/capita (as of 2017) and annually, 63 Mt [37] | 6.5 kg/capita [38] | 37 Mt/year [39] | 6.5 Mt (in 2017) [40] | 24.5 kg/capita/year (including local primary production) [32] | Total: 3.4 Mt (as of 2019–20) [33], 130 kg/capita/year [41] |
Plastic waste generation | 9.4 Mt/year (as of 2019) [26] | 33.48 kg/person (plastic packaging in 2018) [42]. In 2020, more than 29 Mt of plastic post-consumer waste was collected [43] | In 2019, 335.46 Mt (between 2004 and 2019) [44]. In 2019, 26.74 Mt was generated [45] | 3.9 Mt (in 2020) [46] | 35.7 Mt in 2018, which was 12.2 percent of MSW generation. [47] | 11.85 Mt/year [48] | 1.144 Mt [32] | 2.5 Mt/year [49] |
Source of plastic waste generation (main sectors/products) | Plastic packaging from grocery to food and vegetable products, to cosmetics and consumer items [50] | Packaging, non-packaging household, construction and demolition, electrical and electronic equipment, automobile agriculture [51] | Sectors: packaging, building and construction, automobiles, electronics, agriculture. Materials: PE, PP, PVC, PS, ABS [37] | Plastic bags, pet bottles [52] | Bags, sacks and wraps; other packaging; polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles and jars; high-density polyethylene (HDPE) natural bottles; and other containers [47] | high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polystyrene (PS) [53] | LDPE, PET, PP, synthetic rubber, polyester, HDPE, PS, PVC [54] | PET, HDPE, PVC, LDPE, PP [33] |
Plastic waste recycling rate | Between 5% and 25% identified by Siddiqui and Pandey [55] | 41% (in 2019) [56] | 30% [45] | 33% [57] | 8.7% (overall recycling rate) (in 2018). PET bottles and jars recycling rate was 29.1% and HDPE natural bottles was 29.3% [47] | 25.8% [40] | 43.7% (as of 2017) [58] | 13.1% (as of 2019–2020) [33] |
Regulation around single-use plastics | Banned in 25 states, partially banned in 5 states, and not banned in 2 states. Details are given in Section 3.6 [59,60,61,62] | Certain single-use plastics are banned where alternatives are available. Ban enforced on 2 July 2021 [59] | Ban on non-industrial plastic waste and gradual phasing out of non-degradable plastics [44] | Ban on single-use plastic (polythene) bags [46] | On a federal level, no ban is imposed. A list of states that have full or partial ban can be found in the reference of [60] | Bill No. 263/2018. Ban on plastic bags for packaging and transportation of goods and food and beverage utensils [61] | Banned single-use plastic bags in May 2002 [62] | Varies by states. Single-use plastic straws, drink stirrers, and cutlery are banned in South Australia, which was imposed on 1 March 2021. Tasmania and the Northern Territory have no commitments. Victoria is in the process of passing laws; laws passed in the state of Australian Capital Territory, Queensland, New South Wales and Western Australia [63] |
Framework/general regulation on plastic waste management | First regulation was enforced in 2011 as plastic waste management rules 2011. Later, amendments were made in 2016, 2018, and 2021. Details are given in Section 3.6 [64,65,66,67,68] | Ban on the export of plastic waste to non-OECD countries as a Regulation (EU) 2020/2017 enforced on 22 December 2020 [69] | In 2018, non-industrial plastic waste import was banned, and in 2020, the gradual phasing out of problematic plastics was called for by the Chinese government [44] | Statutory Regulatory Order is in place for plastic bags in Federal Capital Islamabad and other cities including Lahore and Hunza [70] | Federal Regulations for Extended Producer Responsibility has been drafted by the Environmental Protection Agency [71] | A law related to replacement of plastic bags has been passed in Rio in 2019. Some states prohibit distribution of plastic bags in supermarkets [72] | No specific environmental legislation on plastic waste (except ban on single-use plastics) [73] | In December 2020, Australian Government’s Recycling and Waste Reduction Act 2020 was passed, banning export of plastic waste [49]. |
Industry structure (stakeholders involved including recycling and/or reprocessing sector) (value chain partners) | Polymer manufacturers, equipment manufacturers, plastic processors, recycling players, end-user industries [74] | Plastics producers, technology providers, converters, recyclers, brand owners [75] | Plastic parts manufacturing industry, plastic injection mold manufacturing, plastic component trimming, plastic use sector, recycling and waste management partners [37,76] | Plastic raw material producers/suppliers, plastic processors, equipment and moldmakers, brand owners, recycling and sustainability partners [29] | Plastics manufacturing, plastics suppliers, end-user sectors [39,77] | Plastic cluster (first-generation basic petrochemicals producers, second-generation resin manufacturers, third-generation plastic products manufacturers), end-user industries, informal sector waste collectors, and processing/recycling industry [78] | Mostly import oriented. Plastic conversion plants, plastic end-user sectors [32] | Mostly imported plastics (70% of the products). Majority of companies are wholesale distributors [79] |
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Hossain, R.; Islam, M.T.; Shanker, R.; Khan, D.; Locock, K.E.S.; Ghose, A.; Schandl, H.; Dhodapkar, R.; Sahajwalla, V. Plastic Waste Management in India: Challenges, Opportunities, and Roadmap for Circular Economy. Sustainability 2022, 14, 4425. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084425
Hossain R, Islam MT, Shanker R, Khan D, Locock KES, Ghose A, Schandl H, Dhodapkar R, Sahajwalla V. Plastic Waste Management in India: Challenges, Opportunities, and Roadmap for Circular Economy. Sustainability. 2022; 14(8):4425. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084425
Chicago/Turabian StyleHossain, Rumana, Md Tasbirul Islam, Riya Shanker, Debishree Khan, Katherine Elizabeth Sarah Locock, Anirban Ghose, Heinz Schandl, Rita Dhodapkar, and Veena Sahajwalla. 2022. "Plastic Waste Management in India: Challenges, Opportunities, and Roadmap for Circular Economy" Sustainability 14, no. 8: 4425. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084425