Biomethanation of Rice Straw: A Sustainable Perspective for the Valorisation of a Field Residue in the Energy Sector
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Rice as an Agricultural Commodity
1.2. Rice Straw: A Residual Waste of Rice Production—A Potential Energy Source
- Husk: 20% by weight of the rice;
- Chaff: 10% by weight of the rice;
- Rice straw: 700–1500 kg for every ton of rice grain.
- Incorporation by the soil (up to 12 t ha yr) increases CH and NO emissions [33].
- Cellulose (CHO): the main constituent (29–80%) of lignocellulosic biomass. It is a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of D-glucose linked by bonds. The cellulose strains are associated to make cellulose fibrils. Cellulose fibres are linked by intra–molecular and inter-molecular hydrogen bonds. Cellulose is insoluble in water and most organic solvents;
- Hemicelluloses (CHO) (10–45%): heterogeneous branched biopolymers, relatively easy to hydrolyze due to their amorphous and branched structure, with short lateral chains, and their lower molecular weight;
- Lignin [CHO(OCH)] (5–25%): an aromatic polymer.
1.3. Anaerobic Digestion
- Hydrolysis phase: During this phase, cellulose and other carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are broken down into monomers by hydrolase enzymes of anaerobic bacteria; this takes from a few hours for the hydrolysis of carbohydrates, to several days for the hydrolysis of proteins and lipids;
- Acidogenic phase: The results of hydrolysis are monomers, which can be degraded into short-chain organic acids, alcohols, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide by anaerobic bacteria;
- Acetogenic phase: The results of the acidogenic process become the substrates for bacteria in the acetogenic phase, which uses H and CO to form acetic acid. Methanogenic bacteria grow concurrently with acetogenic bacteria. Acetate production decreases if hydrogen partial pressure is great enough;
- Methanogenic phase: Methane is generated in anaerobic conditions; based on the substrate, methanogenesis can be divided into the following categories [41]:
- -
- Acetoclastic Methanogenesis: Acetate → CH + CO
- -
- Hydogenotrophic Methanogenesis: H + CO → CH
- -
- Methyltrophic Methanogenesis: Methanol → CH + HO
- Batch reactors, in which all the substrate/inocula mixture is added at the beginning: They are much simpler and 40% less expensive, but with larger volume requirements and a related larger footprint for the reactors;
- Continuously-fed reactors, in which the substrate/inocula mixture is added incrementally over time.
1.4. The Aim of the Paper
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Rice Straw Availability
2.2. The Rice Straw Barrel
2.3. Biomethanation
2.4. Open-Field Burning
- Open field burning:
- -
- 1460.00 kg CO (carbon dioxide);
- -
- 34.70 kg CO (carbon monoxide);
- -
- 13.00 kg PM (particulate matter);
- -
- 3.10 kg NO (oxides of nitrogen);
- -
- 2.00 kg SO (sulphur dioxide);
- -
- 1.20 kg CH (methane).
- Anaerobic digestion:
- -
- 2.05 kg CO (carbon dioxide);
- -
- 0.67 kg CO (carbon monoxide);
- -
- 0.01 kg HS (hydrogen sulphide);
- -
- 0.04 kg NO (oxides of nitrogen);
- -
- 1.07 kg CH (methane).
2.5. The Thermoeconomic Approach
3. Results
3.1. The Novara Case and the Italian Context
3.2. Some of the Major Rice-Producing Countries
Improvements in Sustainability Due to Avoiding Rice Straw Burning on Field
4. Discussion
- The high C/N ratio of rice straw: This is a favourable nutrient balance both for anaerobic bacteria and for maintaining a steady environment. The C/N ratio can be in the range of 20–30 for anaerobic digestion and methanogenesis, 16–45 for hydrolysis, and 20–30 for methanogenesis [86];
- The lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose percentages of rice straw affect the microorganisms effects on the substrate;
- The volatile fatty acids, temperature, and the pH. Volatile fatty acids (acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, valeric acid, lactic acid, and formic acid) represent the most crucial intermediaries produced in anaerobic digestion and affect its stability [85]. They are generated when acids produced from hydrolysis and acidification cannot be consumed by methanogenic bacteria (for example Clostridium thermosuccinogenes and Clostridium cellulovorans [3]), resulting in a pH decrease and process destabilisation [5]. Indeed, the pH range for anaerobic digestion is from 6.8–7.2, with 6.5–7.3 providing the best results, 7.0 required for methanogenesis [3], and hydrolysis and acidogenesis occurring in the range of 5.5–6.5 [87]. Temperature affects the reaction velocity, the transport phenomena (diffusion), and chemical dissociation. Acceptable temperature ranges for digestion by anaerobic microorganism are 10–20 C for psychrophilic, 30–40 C for mesophilic, and 50–60 C for thermophilic microorganisms, with thermophilic conditions preferred to inactivate pathogenic populations [5];
- The quality of inoculum, the feedstock-to-inoculum ratio, and the organic loading rate;
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AD | Anaerobic Digestion |
Educational Index | |
Global Warming Potential | |
Human Development Index | |
Income Index | |
k | Coefficient |
Life Expectancy Index | |
m | Mass (kg) |
r | Rice |
Rice Straw | |
Rice Straw Barrel | |
THDI | Thermodynamic Human Development Index |
TS | Total Solids |
Annual biomethane potential yield | |
VS | Volatile Solids |
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Country | Area | Plant Height | Yield |
---|---|---|---|
[Mha] | [mm] | [t ha] | |
China | 30.34 | 362–483 | 7.04 |
India | 45.00 | 900–1300 | 3.96 |
Indonesia | 10.66 | 701–998 | 5.13 |
Japan | 1.46 | 1020–1170 | 6.64 |
Malaysia | 0.65 | 631 | 3.60 |
Thailand | 10.40 | 1000–6000 | 2.91 |
United States | 1.21 | 950–1880 | 8.54 |
Vietnam | 7.22 | 900–1750 | 5.92 |
World | 164.19 | n.d. | 4.61 |
Continent | Rice Production |
---|---|
[Mt yr] | |
Africa | 37.9 |
Asia | 676.6 |
Australia | 0.1 |
Central America | 1.4 |
Europe | 4.1 |
Northern America | 10.3 |
Russian Federation | 1.1 |
South America | 25.0 |
World | 756.5 |
Year | Rice Production | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bangladesh | Brazil | China | India | Italy | Pakistan | Spain | Thailand | USA | Vietnam | |
[ t] | [ t] | [ t] | [ t] | [ t] | [ t] | [ t] | [ t] | [ t] | [ t] | |
2000 | 3.76 | 1.11 | 1.90 | 1.27 | 1.23 | 7.20 | 8.27 | 2.58 | 0.87 | 3.25 |
2005 | 3.98 | 1.32 | 1.82 | 1.38 | 1.41 | 8.32 | 8.24 | 3.06 | 1.01 | 3.58 |
2010 | 5.01 | 1.12 | 1.97 | 1.44 | 1.52 | 7.23 | 9.28 | 3.57 | 1.10 | 4.00 |
2015 | 5.18 | 1.23 | 2.14 | 1.57 | 1.52 | 1.02 | 8.47 | 2.77 | 0.87 | 4.51 |
2020 | 5.49 | 1.11 | 2.14 | 1.78 | 1.51 | 8.42 | 7.39 | 3.02 | 1.03 | 4.28 |
Country | Calorific Value |
---|---|
[ J kg] | |
China | 18.0 |
India | 12.3–28.5 |
Malaysia | 15.1 |
Thailand | 11.7–16.3 |
United States | 11.5–15.3 |
Form | Density |
---|---|
[kg m] | |
Baled | 110–200 |
Chopped | 40–80 |
Cubed | 320–640 |
Hammer milled | 40–100 |
Loose | 20–40 |
Pelleted | 560–720 |
Quantity | Value | Unit of Measurement |
---|---|---|
1828.8 | kg ha | |
4262.2 | kg ha | |
k | 0.596 | month |
Size | Cellulose Content |
---|---|
<0.15 | 84 |
0.15–0.18 | 83 |
0.18–0.21 | 76 |
0.21–0.25 | 68 |
0.25–0.30 | 61 |
0.30–0.42 | 56 |
>0.42 | 50 |
Type of Pretreatment | Methane Yield | Digestion Temperature | Time Period |
---|---|---|---|
m kg | [C] | [d] | |
Cut (3–5 mm) | 280 | 22 | 120 |
Pulverized | 215 | 35 | 120 |
Extrusion (<50 mm) | 227 | 35 | 45 |
2% NH | 190 | 35 | 24 |
Quantity | Minimum | Average | Maximum | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
k | 0.70 | 1.35 | 1.50 | [3,6,7,8,9,10] |
() | 73.80 | 84.08 | 95.26 | [43] |
( m kg) | 92 | 186 | 280 | [3] |
Quantity | Min. | Avg. | Max. | |
---|---|---|---|---|
(t) | 86,240 | 166,320 | 184,800 | |
2.01 | 3.87 | 4.30 | ||
(t) | 118,410 | 260,171 | 317,959 | |
( m yr) | 1.09 | 2.39 | 2.93 | |
( m yr) | 2.20 | 4.84 | 5.91 | |
( m yr) | 3.32 | 7.28 | 8.90 |
Quantity | Year | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2000 | 2005 | 2010 | 2015 | 2020 | |||||||||||
Min. | Avg. | Max. | Min. | Avg. | Max. | Min. | Avg. | Max. | Min. | Avg. | Max. | Min. | Avg. | Max. | |
1.12 | 2.16 | 2.40 | 1.29 | 2.48 | 2.76 | 1.38 | 2.67 | 2.96 | 1.38 | 2.67 | 2.97 | 1.37 | 2.65 | 2.94 | |
2.62 | 5.75 | 7.03 | 3.01 | 6.61 | 8.08 | 3.23 | 7.09 | 8.67 | 3.23 | 7.10 | 8.68 | 3.21 | 7.05 | 8.62 | |
0.53 | 1.16 | 1.42 | 0.61 | 1.34 | 1.63 | 0.65 | 1.43 | 1.75 | 0.65 | 1.44 | 1.75 | 0.65 | 1.43 | 1.74 | |
0.80 | 1.75 | 2.14 | 0.92 | 2.01 | 2.46 | 0.98 | 2.16 | 2.64 | 0.98 | 2.16 | 2.64 | 0.98 | 2.15 | 2.62 |
Quantity | Year | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2000 | 2005 | 2010 | 2015 | 2020 | |||||||||||
Min. | Avg. | Max. | Min. | Avg. | Max. | Min. | Avg. | Max. | Min. | Avg. | Max. | Min. | Avg. | Max. | |
Bangldesh | |||||||||||||||
3.43 | 6.62 | 7.35 | 3.63 | 7.00 | 7.77 | 4.56 | 8.80 | 9.78 | 4.72 | 9.11 | 10.12 | 5.01 | 9.65 | 10.75 | |
0.80 | 1.76 | 2.15 | 0.85 | 1.86 | 2.28 | 1.07 | 2.34 | 2.86 | 1.10 | 2.42 | 2.96 | 1.17 | 2.57 | 3.14 | |
1.62 | 3.56 | 4.35 | 1.71 | 3.76 | 4.60 | 2.15 | 4.73 | 5.79 | 2.23 | 4.90 | 5.99 | 2.36 | 5.19 | 6.35 | |
2.44 | 5.36 | 6.55 | 2.58 | 5.67 | 6.92 | 3.24 | 7.13 | 8.71 | 3.36 | 7.38 | 9.01 | 3.56 | 7.82 | 9.55 | |
Brazil | |||||||||||||||
1.02 | 1.96 | 2.18 | 1.20 | 2.32 | 2.58 | 1.02 | 1.98 | 2.19 | 1.12 | 2.16 | 2.40 | 1.01 | 1.95 | 2.17 | |
2.37 | 5.21 | 6.37 | 2.81 | 6.17 | 7.54 | 2.39 | 5.26 | 6.42 | 2.62 | 5.75 | 7.03 | 2.36 | 5.19 | 6.34 | |
0.48 | 1.05 | 1.29 | 0.57 | 1.25 | 1.52 | 0.48 | 1.06 | 1.30 | 0.53 | 1.16 | 1.42 | 0.48 | 1.05 | 1.28 | |
0.72 | 1.59 | 1.94 | 0.86 | 1.88 | 2.30 | 0.73 | 1.60 | 1.96 | 0.80 | 1.75 | 2.14 | 0.72 | 1.58 | 1.93 | |
China | |||||||||||||||
1.73 | 3.34 | 3.71 | 1.66 | 3.20 | 3.56 | 1.80 | 3.47 | 3.85 | 1.95 | 3.76 | 4.18 | 1.95 | 3.76 | 4.17 | |
0.40 | 0.89 | 1.09 | 0.39 | 0.85 | 1.04 | 0.42 | 0.92 | 1.13 | 0.46 | 1.00 | 1.22 | 0.46 | 1.00 | 1.22 | |
0.82 | 1.80 | 2.19 | 0.78 | 1.72 | 2.10 | 0.85 | 1.87 | 2.28 | 0.92 | 2.02 | 2.47 | 0.92 | 2.02 | 2.47 | |
1.23 | 2.70 | 3.30 | 1.18 | 2.59 | 3.17 | 1.28 | 2.81 | 3.43 | 1.38 | 3.04 | 3.72 | 1.38 | 3.04 | 3.72 | |
India | |||||||||||||||
1.16 | 2.24 | 2.49 | 1.26 | 2.42 | 2.69 | 1.31 | 2.53 | 2.81 | 1.43 | 2.75 | 3.06 | 1.63 | 3.13 | 3.48 | |
2.71 | 5.96 | 7.29 | 2.93 | 6.44 | 7.87 | 3.07 | 6.74 | 8.23 | 3.33 | 7.32 | 8.95 | 3.80 | 8.34 | 10.20 | |
0.56 | 1.21 | 1.47 | 0.59 | 1.30 | 1.59 | 0.62 | 1.36 | 1.66 | 0.67 | 1.48 | 1.81 | 0.77 | 1.69 | 2.06 | |
0.83 | 1.81 | 2.22 | 0.89 | 1.96 | 2.40 | 0.93 | 2.05 | 2.51 | 1.01 | 2.23 | 2.72 | 1.16 | 2.54 | 3.10 | |
Pakistan | |||||||||||||||
0.66 | 1.27 | 1.41 | 0.76 | 1.46 | 1.63 | 0.66 | 1.27 | 1.41 | 0.93 | 1.79 | 1.99 | 0.77 | 1.48 | 1.64 | |
1.53 | 3.37 | 4.12 | 1.77 | 3.89 | 4.76 | 1.54 | 3.38 | 4.14 | 2.17 | 4.77 | 5.83 | 1.79 | 3.94 | 4.81 | |
3.10 | 6.81 | 8.33 | 3.58 | 7.87 | 9.62 | 3.11 | 6.84 | 8.36 | 4.39 | 9.65 | 11.84 | 3.62 | 7.96 | 9.73 | |
0.47 | 1.03 | 1.25 | 0.54 | 1.18 | 1.45 | 0.47 | 1.03 | 1.26 | 0.66 | 1.45 | 1.78 | 0.55 | 1.20 | 1.47 | |
Spain | |||||||||||||||
0.75 | 1.45 | 1.62 | 0.75 | 1.45 | 1.61 | 0.86 | 1.63 | 1.81 | 0.77 | 1.49 | 1.65 | 0.67 | 1.30 | 1.44 | |
1.76 | 3.87 | 4.73 | 1.75 | 3.86 | 4.71 | 1.98 | 4.34 | 5.30 | 1.80 | 3.96 | 4.84 | 1.57 | 3.46 | 4.23 | |
3.56 | 7.82 | 9.56 | 3.55 | 7.79 | 9.53 | 3.99 | 8.78 | 10.70 | 3.65 | 8.01 | 9.79 | 3.18 | 6.99 | 8.54 | |
0.54 | 1.18 | 1.44 | 0.53 | 1.17 | 1.43 | 0.60 | 1.32 | 1.61 | 0.55 | 1.21 | 1.47 | 0.48 | 1.05 | 1.29 | |
Thailand | |||||||||||||||
2.36 | 4.54 | 5.05 | 2.79 | 5.39 | 5.99 | 3.25 | 6.28 | 6.97 | 2.53 | 4.87 | 5.41 | 2.76 | 5.32 | 5.91 | |
0.55 | 1.21 | 1.48 | 0.65 | 1.43 | 1.75 | 0.76 | 1.67 | 2.04 | 0.59 | 1.30 | 1.58 | 0.64 | 1.41 | 1.73 | |
1.11 | 2.44 | 2.99 | 1.32 | 2.90 | 3.54 | 1.54 | 3.38 | 4.13 | 1.19 | 2.62 | 3.20 | 1.30 | 2.86 | 3.49 | |
1.67 | 3.68 | 4.50 | 1.99 | 4.36 | 5.33 | 2.31 | 5.08 | 6.21 | 1.80 | 3.94 | 4.82 | 1.96 | 4.30 | 5.26 | |
U.S.A. | |||||||||||||||
0.79 | 1.52 | 1.69 | 0.92 | 1.78 | 1.97 | 1.01 | 1.94 | 2.15 | 0.80 | 1.53 | 1.70 | 0.94 | 1.81 | 2.02 | |
1.84 | 4.05 | 4.95 | 2.15 | 4.73 | 5.78 | 2.35 | 5.16 | 6.30 | 1.86 | 4.08 | 4.99 | 2.20 | 4.83 | 5.90 | |
0.37 | 0.82 | 1.00 | 0.44 | 0.96 | 1.17 | 0.48 | 1.04 | 1.27 | 0.48 | 0.83 | 1.01 | 0.44 | 0.98 | 1.19 | |
0.561 | 1.23 | 1.51 | 0.66 | 1.44 | 1.76 | 0.72 | 1.57 | 1.92 | 0.57 | 1.24 | 1.52 | 0.67 | 1.47 | 1.80 | |
Vietnam | |||||||||||||||
2.97 | 5.72 | 6.35 | 3.27 | 6.30 | 7.00 | 3.65 | 7.03 | 7.82 | 4.11 | 7.93 | 8.81 | 3.90 | 7.52 | 8.35 | |
0.69 | 1.52 | 1.86 | 0.76 | 1.68 | 2.05 | 0.85 | 1.87 | 2.29 | 0.96 | 2.11 | 2.58 | 0.91 | 2.00 | 2.44 | |
1.40 | 3.08 | 3.76 | 1.54 | 3.39 | 4.14 | 1.72 | 3.78 | 4.62 | 1.94 | 4.26 | 5.21 | 1.84 | 4.04 | 4.94 | |
2.11 | 4.63 | 5.66 | 2.32 | 5.10 | 6.24 | 2.59 | 5.70 | 6.96 | 2.92 | 6.42 | 7.85 | 2.77 | 6.09 | 7.44 |
Indicator | Variation in the Period 2000–2018 [%] | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I | Bangladesh | Brazil | China | India | Italy | Pakistan | Spain | Thailand | USA | Vietnam |
38 | 21 | 16 | 31 | 12 | 18 | 11 | 14 | 7 | 10 | |
43 | 7 | 89 | 46 | 3 | 15 | 7 | 22 | 7 | 56 | |
111 | 50 | 62 | 78 | 32 | 96 | 41 | 76 | 7 | 81 |
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Grisolia, G.; Fino, D.; Lucia, U. Biomethanation of Rice Straw: A Sustainable Perspective for the Valorisation of a Field Residue in the Energy Sector. Sustainability 2022, 14, 5679. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095679
Grisolia G, Fino D, Lucia U. Biomethanation of Rice Straw: A Sustainable Perspective for the Valorisation of a Field Residue in the Energy Sector. Sustainability. 2022; 14(9):5679. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095679
Chicago/Turabian StyleGrisolia, Giulia, Debora Fino, and Umberto Lucia. 2022. "Biomethanation of Rice Straw: A Sustainable Perspective for the Valorisation of a Field Residue in the Energy Sector" Sustainability 14, no. 9: 5679. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095679