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Article

Geo-Environmental Evaluation of the Kaakia Landfill, Southwest Makkah, Saudi Arabia

by
Essam A. Morsy
1,2
1
Department of Environmental and Health Research, Umm Al-Qura University, P.O. Box 6287, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia
2
Geophysics Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza P.O. Box 12613, Egypt
Sustainability 2023, 15(1), 500; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010500
Submission received: 16 November 2022 / Revised: 15 December 2022 / Accepted: 23 December 2022 / Published: 28 December 2022
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Abstract

:
The environmental control and management of municipal solid waste (MSW) dumping sites is considered one of the sensitive challenges faced by executive municipalities. This is especially true in Makkah due to the gradual increase in urban population and visitors, with an overall MSW generation of about one million tons per year. Consequently, the geo-environmental evaluation of the Kaakia dumping site shed light on the potential environmental threats, in terms of ambient air quality levels and meteorological parameters, in addition to geophysical inspection. An air quality survey discussed the major trends of ambient air pollutants (SO2, NO2, CO, O3, CH4, and PM10) downwind from the Kaakia dumping site. It indicated the presence of a significant increase in sporadic plumes of Methane concentration. The maximum hourly averages ranged between 22.9–26.6 µg/m3 for SO2, 44.4–64.0 µg/m3 for NO2, 0.86–1.38 mg/m3 for CO, 150.2–158.8 µg/m3 for O3, 5.09–5.9 ppm for CH4, and 955–994 µg/m3 for PM10. The ground penetrating radar (GPR) geophysical survey indicated the subsurface sequence of three geological layers, as confirmed by nearby bores of the investigated site: (1) a surface layer formed of alluvial sediments of sand, which were 2.5–3.1 m thick; (2) a second layer represented by sand and gravel, with a thickness of 4.6–6.5 m; and (3) a third layer equivalent to saturated alluvial sediments mixed with rock fragments that extended to a depth of 13 m. The signals of the GPR were attenuated at the base of the conducted profiles due to the percolation of generated leachate to the subsurface sequence and contaminated groundwater aquifer.

1. Introduction

Globally, the dramatic increase in urbanization, industrialization, and increasing standards of living have led to an increase in solid waste generation (SW), which is subsequently in need of waste-management facilities for the generated waste. Landfilling is considered one of the most dominant methods for disposing of the generated SW. These landfill sites introduce a lot of environmental load and pose threats to groundwater and subsurface soil and emit gases and odors [1,2,3,4,5].
The atmospheric environment in the form of gases and odors are emitted from the deposited and accumulated wastes in dumpsites/landfills and are generated from the anaerobic decomposition of solid materials [6,7,8]. The emitted gases and odors are mainly generated by the biological decomposition of organic components in solid waste [9,10]. Emitted atmospheric air gases from solid waste dumpsites/landfills (SWL) include sulfur dioxide, SO2; nitrogen oxides, NOX; carbon monoxide, CO; particulate matter, PM; and hydrocarbons, HC; that are majorly volatile organic compounds (VOC’s). The generated atmospheric gases and odor from the body of dumpsite/landfill may lead to negative consequences on the nearby environment and human health, especially in the inhabited and urbanized areas near SW dumping/landfilling sites [11]. The potential of increasing odor and atmospheric pollutants from SW dumping/landfill sites are usually associated with nearly static levels of wind speed, which may hinder the dispersion of atmospheric pollutants, especially in complex topographic conditions [9,12].
Generated leachate from the dumping sites is considered a vital source for polluting groundwater, which has a complicated nature and is composed of high concentrations of hazardous parameters (heavy metals and chemical compounds) that could pose a serious threat to the surrounding environment. All these aspects cause a lot of challenges for the responsible bodies of waste management all over the world [13].
Several researchers indicated the adverse impacts of SW dumping sites on the surrounding environment and adjacent communities, in particular, that the generated atmospheric pollutants from the dumping/landfilling sites are odorous and lead to negative impacts around the concerned sites [13,14,15,16,17]. Additionally, scientists confirmed that the generated leachate from the decomposition of MSW, which generally accumulates at the base of dumping/landfilling sites, then percolates through the subsurface layering sequence toward the groundwater aquifer. So, there is a significant potential for contaminating the groundwater aquifer around SW dumping sites [18,19,20].
Numerous researchers have investigated the application and integration of different geophysical techniques for the characterization and evaluation of the generated contaminants from the dumping/landfilling of solid waste. Geoelectrical resistivity and ground penetrating radar techniques have sufficient credibility and efficiency for such environmental dumping/landfilling sites due to the nature of the conduction of the contaminant (leachate) [21,22,23,24,25].

1.1. Site Conditions

Makkah is located in the Hijaz’s southern sector in the central-western portion of the Arabian Shield and mostly consists of various types of sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks belonging to the Precambrian and lower Paleozoic era [26]. Besides that, there are subordinate sedimentary rocks and basaltic lava originating from the Tertiary and Quaternary ages [27,28].
Historically, the dumping sites of SW in Makkah passed with two sites: the first one was located in the Muaissam area (in the eastern part of Makkah), which operated during the period 1985–2003. The second site, located in the southwest portion of Makkah, opened in 2003 with an estimated area of 452,489 m2 and is still in operation now, with an extended area of 1,077,188 m2. In addition, the Kaakia dumping site has no liner and no leachate collection system [29,30].
The area under study (the Kaakia dumping site) is situated southwest of Makkah city, as shown in Figure 1a, near the intersection of the sub-basins of Wadi Ibrahim and El-Salwey, and on the downstream of Wadi Uranah, which are considered the vital valleys in Makkah, as observed in Figure 1b. The prevailed surface deposits are equivalent to alluvial deposits of sand and gravel, intercalated with aeolian sediments that are deposited along the tributaries of the valleys [31].

1.2. Solid Waste Landfilling/Dumping in Makkah

Millions of visitors from all over the world visit Makkah every year to perform Hajj and Umrah. Due to the rapid increase of urbanization, residents, and visitors, a huge amount of urban MSW is generated every year. Currently, the majority of MSW is dumped into the Kaakia dumping site, with the MSW quantities reaching one million tons in 2015 and partially less in 2019 [29], as indicated in Figure 2.
The investigated Kaakia dumping site, located in southwest Makkah, is considered the main official dumping site. Disposal of SW in Makkah, as discussed by different authors [29,31], was described historically as being dumped into two sites. The first, at Muassiam (east of Makkah city), closed in 2003, and the second, at Kaakia (southwest of Makkah), has been in operation since 2003.
The increase in the organic component of MSW in Makkah is recorded by researchers [29,31] and shown in Figure 3. Additionally, the meteorological conditions of temperature—which have ranged between 20.8–51.4 °C, with an average of 38.3 °C—and relative humidity—which has ranged between 32.4–59.0%, with an average of 46.3% [32]—have provided an adequate environment for accelerating anaerobic decomposition in the Kaakia dumping site. This has increased the potential of generating significant quantities of biogas—that contains about 50–60% Methane (CH4)—and generating sludge (leachate). The expected high levels of atmospheric-pollutant Methane and leachate will initiate a lot of environmental threats to the surrounding environment of the investigated site.
The surrounding rocky terrain is covered mainly by complex intrusions of igneous rock. They mainly consist of coarse-grained, greenish-white, hornblende Grano-Diorite, Biotite Monzo-Granite, and sills of various sizes and orientations in various places. The intrusions are normally fine-grained Diorite and other Ultramafic rocks (gabbro), as well as less than 10 cm thick milky–white quartz veins. Occasional and isolated grey granitic schist is found exposed at the lowest part of the valley. At the floor of the valley, there is an indication of a thick sequence of wadi alluvium, comprised of unconsolidated sand and gravel about 15 m thick, underlying the center part of the wadi [28].
Generally, [28,31] described the surface geology of the Kaakia dump site and its surroundings as follows: the Precambrian intrusive strata cover most of the study area. Intermediate rocks, varying in constitution from diorite to tonalite, prevailed in the batholiths of the Makkah region and are indicated to the Kamil suite. It is well remarked that the prevailing structural trend is northeast to north-northeast and expresses three outermost stages of Precambrian deformation and Tertiary faulting.
Currently, the Kaakia dumping site has been utilized for about 20 years for receiving various streams of various types of waste, including municipal solid waste (MSW), construction and demolition waste, rock cuttings, and garden waste. The site can be described, as previously mentioned, as an open dump site that has no liner and was not designed with leachate or gas collection systems.

1.3. Scope of the Current Research

The main target of the current research is to evaluate the environmental impacts associated with atmospheric air pollutants and the potential percolation of leachate generated from the Kaakia dumping site into the subsurface layering sequence. The present research was executed through ordered multidisciplinary environmental aspects, beginning with investigating the meteorological conditions, setting the location points for the air quality survey, and a geophysical GPR survey around the path of the leachate collection for the Kaakia dumping site.
By utilizing the meteorological data, air quality survey, and a geophysical GPR survey to define the predominant wind direction around the study area, as well as the nature and frequency of the distribution of wind speed, the identification of atmospheric pollutants compared with air quality limits around the dumping site, delineating the shallow subsurface layering sequence and the potential for leachate contamination in the groundwater aquifer, the current research illustrates the extent of the environmental impact of the Kaakia dumping site of MSW in Makkah. The introduced approach is considered a transferrable scheme and can be followed in similar settings

2. Materials and Methods

The study was based on the integration of meteorological conditions (determining the dominant wind direction and the wind speed around the dumping site), an air quality survey (quantifying the levels of atmospheric pollutants), as well as utilizing a GPR survey to evaluate the extent of the environmental impact of the generated leachate on the groundwater aquifer, and subsurface geologic sequence, as shown in Figure 4.
Analytical methodologies and air quality analyzers were used based on the detection—and corresponding techniques—of trace species: SO2 (APSA370: UV fluorescence); NO and NO2 (APNA370: chemiluminescence); O3 (APOA370: UV photometric); CO (APMA370: IR Absorption); CH4 (APHA370: Selective combustion method and hydrogen flame ionization method); and PM10 (BAM1020: bray). A mobile laboratory belonging to Umm Al-Qura University was used for monitoring ambient atmospheric air quality levels around the Kaakia dumping site. A quality control assurance was implemented on air quality, which was mainly based on the international standard operation procedure (SOP).
Through the current study, an ambient air quality survey was acquired according to the prevailing wind direction during the measuring period (December 2020 and January 2021 for site 1 and February 2021 for site 2). (1) site 1, located southeast of the Kaakia dumping site by a distance of about 5 km; (2) site 2, situated north northeast of the Kaakia dumping site by a distance of about 2 km, as illustrated in Figure 5.
A geophysical GPR survey was mainly applied to investigate the extent of groundwater contamination by generated leachate from the Kaakia dumping site, in addition to evaluating the shallow subsurface layering through the concerned site. A total of six GPR profiles, as shown in Figure 6, were conducted: three around the leachate collection pond site and the rest at the body of the dumping site.
The GPR technique depends mainly on transmitting electromagnetic (EM) waves down through the subsurface layers originating from the transmitting antenna, then the reflected EM waves are registered by the receiver (antenna). The collected GPR data were executed in continuous mode using GSSI SIR-3000 attached with 100 MHz and 400 MHz frequency shielded antennas [33]. The GPR survey was conducted using an integrated and compact radar unit GSSI System, Model SIR-3000 Pulse, equipped with 100 MHz and 400 MHz frequency shielded antennas. The survey has been carried out along separate profiles at two selected sites: (1) on the body of the dumping site of Kaakia and (2) along the collection pond of the leachate, as illustrated in Figure 6.
Data processing was performed using RADAN 7 software developed by Geophysical Survey Systems Inc., by applying consecutive steps as follows. (1) Time zero, to adjust the start time with the actual ground surface; (2) Background removal, to remove the horizontal bands of adjacent noise during the acquisition phase that were a result of the antenna ringing; (3) FIR Filter (25, 200 MHz for the central frequency 100 MHz antenna), FIR filters have an impulse response of finite duration and can show the encountered features in GPR data without a shift in position or time; (4) Range Gain, to help for the portion of the GPR data that is under or over gained during the acquisition phase; and (5) Time/depth conversion, by optimizing the most equivalent dielectric constant obtained from standard tables, assuming that the formation is equivalent to saturated sand soil with a dielectric constant of 4–6 indicating an EM wave velocity of about 0.13 m/ns [34,35,36]

3. Results

The following sections briefly describe the results of the environmental impact of the Kaakia dumping site, based upon the conducted survey, in the form of the meteorological conditions, air quality survey, and the geophysical GPR survey.

3.1. Meteorological Conditions around Kaakia Dumping Site

The meteorological data of the Leith station (located northwest of the Kaakia dumping site by a distance of 6 km) were collected to determine the downwind dominant direction passing the investigated site to locate the sites of the ambient air quality survey. Wind direction and speed data were categorized and quality controlled, then the data was divided on a monthly basis, then processed by WRPLOT View™ [37]. The prevailing wind direction originates from the SW during the months of January to May and during October and November. Whereas during June, July, and August, the wind direction fluctuates between NW and SW.
A generic annual wind rose was prepared for the Leith station, as presented in Figure 7a. It is well observed that the dominant wind direction originates most of the year from the SW, while a minor wind direction comes from NE and NW. Additionally, the frequency distribution for the wind data was calculated and showed that about 48.8% of the wind speed data was nearly static and ranged between 0.5–2.1 m/s, 30.7% ranged between 2.1–3.6 m/s, and 17.7% ranged between 3.6–5.7 m/s, as shown in Figure 7b.
The climate of Makkah can be described as extremely hot in summer, moderately hot in winter, and sporadic rainfall events with variable quantities. Generally, the air temperature reaches its maximum during the summer months (May, June, July, and August), and minimum temperatures are recorded in the winter months (December and January). Atmospheric temperature varies from 16.34 °C in winter to nearly 48.32 °C in summer, as observed in Figure 8a, where the annual median temperature reached 31.74 °C.
Due to the nearness of Makkah City to the Red Sea (about 80 km), the relative humidity is slightly high. The relative humidity average values vary from 3.79% in June and 89.20% in February, as illustrated in Figure 8b. The annual average relative humidity is 35.36%. The rainfall amounts are of irregular criteria throughout the full year and through the months. Spring and winter seasons are considered the rainy period, and there is nearly no rain between the months of December and April, with a total quantity during 2019 of 81.53 mm, as shown in Figure 8c.

3.2. Ambient Air Quality Levels around Kaakia Dumping Site

The dumping site of Kaakia attains a significant fraction of degradable organic materials [30], such as food residue, garden waste, vegetables, and fruits. So, the potential of generating methane and biogases is intensively expected due to the great probability of anaerobic decomposition throughout the body of the dumping site. The municipal landfill/dumping sites are considered the main anthropogenic source; soils are evaluated as accounting for nearly 45% of worldwide methane generation [38,39,40].
The air quality survey was conducted by utilizing the mobile station of ambient air quality on the downwind urbanized area east of the Kaakia dumping site, according to the path of the prevailing downwind direction from the body of the Kaakia dumping site. The air pollutants were recorded at the two sites: (1) site 1 and (2) site 2, as shown in Figure 5. The hourly concentration of ambient atmospheric pollutants was collected, quality controlled and statistically analyzed. The concentrations of SO2 and NO2 were ranging between 2.1–26.6, 0.63–64.0 g/m3 for sites 1 and 2, respectively. It is well observed that the readings were in the normal ranges for SO2 and NO2 in Makkah districts, but there were some abrupt increases during specific days that may be due to extensive vehicle emissions around the studied sites, impacted by the meteorological conditions that can direct these emissions to the urbanized area as illustrated in Figure 9a,a’,b,b’. Carbon Monoxide (CO) ranged between 0.11–1.38 mg/m3 for the two sites, as shown in Figure 9c,c’. Ozone ranged between 0.98–158.76 µg/m3 for the two sites, as indicated in Figure 9d,d’.
CH4 ranged between 1.33–5.09 ppm for the two sites, and the presence of a baseline of readings—averaged at 2.4 ppm—was observed, where the sporadic plumes were detected in the early morning at 5:00 and 6:00 am at the two sites. Additionally, the density of CH4 plumes increased at the end of the measuring period for the two sites. This can be interpreted as due to the gradual increase in temperature from December 2020 until the end of February 2021, which is also associated with the increasing potential of anaerobic decomposition of MSW as shown in Figure 9e,e’. PM10 ranged between 17–955 µg/m3 for the two sites, which was marked by an abrupt increase at the end of the measuring period of site 1 and during the whole measuring period of site 2, as observed in Figure 9f,f’.

3.3. Geophysical GPR Survey around Kaakia Dumping Site

The improper handling, collection, separation, and disposal practices of MSW generate highly concentrated leachates. Random diffusion of leachates introduces potential environmental impacts and threats to the local surrounding ecosystems, especially to the exposed and nearby subsurface sediments and groundwater. The composition of leachate is based basically on the nature and components of the dumped MSW, biochemical and chemical interactions in the anaerobic environment, and water content in total MSW [41,42].
The GPR results at the conducted sites, (1) site 1: at the body of the dumping site; and (2) site 2: beside the leachate collection pond, utilizing 100 and 400 MHz, are shown in Figure 6. The preliminary interpretation of the GPR data was started by using the existing information on the investigated site, including available geological outcrops, subsurface geological sequence, the depth of the groundwater aquifer, and records of MSW disposal.
For the body of the dumping site of Kaakia (site 1), the conducted GPR profiles show a clearly observed boundary at a depth of 3.5 m, that equates to the earlier compacted waste material, which exhibits distinct stratified layering as shown in Figure 10a,b. It also detected strong signals at various depths, with a strong reflectivity equivalent to metallic buried objects (yellow markers). Additionally, it is obvious that the reflectors are diminishing toward the lower depths on the GPR records. There is a noticeable high attenuation of signals and no visible reflection due to the partial absorption of electromagnetic (EM) waves due to the partial increase of fluid content, which can be interpreted as MSW with a high content of organic matter. The end of GPR-01, as observed in Figure 10a, it is characterized by the continuity of subsurface reflectors, which can be interpreted as proper intercalations of MSW with daily sandy cover deposits, which minimize the rate of leachate generation.
Regarding the conducted GPR survey around the leachate collection pond of the Kaakia dumping site (site 2): the conducted traverses were GPR-4, -5, and -6, the first surface layers were nearly horizontal, somewhat continuous, and the reflectors were obvious and clearly marked to a depth about 3.2 m, as indicated in Figure 11. It was also noticed that there were discontinuities in the subsurface reflectors at a depth of about 8 m, which reflect full attenuation of EM waves due to the full saturation of subsurface deposits by the collected leachate, which confirmed the percolation of the leachate to the subsurface soil and upper section of the groundwater aquifer.

4. Discussion

The Kaakia dumping site, located southwest of Makkah city, is subjected to meteorological conditions that can be described as an arid area, where the annual rainfall is on average 81.5 mm, the annual temperature ranges between 16.3 to 48.3 °C, the relative humidity ranges from between 3.8 to 89.2%, with an annual average of 35.36%, and the prevailing wind direction originates from the southwest with a nearly static speed ranging between 1.5 to 2.1 m/s most of the year. The detailed scope of the meteorological statistics offers the potential for rapid decomposition of MSW into the investigated site.
The meteorological conditions (temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, and nearly static wind speed), in addition to the significant fragments of organic content (48.8%) of MSW, provide a suitable environment for rapid anaerobic decomposition. Consequently, the potential of the generation of undesired atmospheric emissions and generated leachate were expected and confirmed through the carried out environmental surveying. These conditions can threaten the surrounding areas, causing anxiety and disruption for the downwind receptors and causing groundwater contamination downstream of the dumping site (the main course of Wadi Uranah and its attributes).
The environmental air quality survey can be summarized as: the hourly average concentrations of SO2 and NO2 ranged between 2.1–26.6, 0.63–64.0 µg/m3 for sites 1 and 2, respectively. Carbon Monoxide (CO) ranged between 0.11–1.38 mg/m3 for sites 1 and 2, respectively. Ozone ranged between 0.98–158.76 µg/m3 for sites 1 and 2, respectively. CH4 ranged between 1.33–5.09 ppm for sites 1 and 2, respectively. PM10 ranged between 17–955.0 µg/m3 for sites 1 and 2, respectively.
The geophysical survey formed via the GPR technique on the body of the dumping site and around generated and collection pond confirmed the rapid rate of anaerobic decomposition of MSW. The expected heterogeneous subsurface medium of the dumped waste is due to the presence of buried metallic objects, earlier compacted waste material, the partial decomposition of the MSW, and proper intercalations of MSW with the daily sandy cover deposits.
Also, the geophysical GPR survey confirmed the percolation of the generated leachate from the dumping site of Kaakia on the subsurface geological sequence to more than 13 m. Unfortunately, there was contamination of the percolated leachate in the upper portion of the groundwater aquifer. So, the leachate can be considered as representing the major factor of the contribution to environmental threats in the surrounding environment, especially the field handling method of the generated leachate, mixing of the leachate with the sand deposits that can be used on a daily basis to cover the compressed MSW layer and the presence of a leakage point of leakage at the west direction.
Generated leachate that formed at the base of compacted SW layers can be percolated easily through shallow subsurface sedimentary rocks (wadi fill deposits that consist of silty sand deposits), characterized by high porosity and high permeability, passed down through the natural conduits in the subsurface sequence on the investigated site, with the aid of the specific meteorological conditions in the study area, which has led to accelerating the dispersion of leachate in the surface and subsurface pollution. So, it is expected that in heavy rain seasons, the percolation of the leachate is directly increased [43,44,45,46,47,48].
The geo-environmental parameters, such as topography and the nature of flow dynamics govern the flow of the generated leachate to the water table reservoir. The potential for contamination of groundwater is high. Based on the above, the presence of urbanized areas in the east of the dumping site of Kaakia necessitates urgent remediation and a closure plan.

5. Conclusions

The current research introduced the characterization of atmospheric and subsurface pollution that can be applied in geo-environmental evaluation in similar case studies using the integration of meteorological analysis, nature of MSW, ambient air quality monitoring, and geophysical GPR survey. The present case study indicates that pollution has been transported to the atmospheric environment and subsurface environment and its transported to the groundwater aquifer through the soil cover.
Through the current research work, the environmental impacts of the Kaakia dumping site have been evaluated to identify the quantitative impacts on the surrounding environment, in the form of atmospheric environment and subsurface environment, that could be extended to impact human health. So, based on the findings of the current study, enhancing the already-existing dumping sites/landfills to be more safe, efficient, and properly environmentally sound through specific modifications for the operational practices and management improvement is recommended.
It is also advised and recommended to apply remedial and rehabilitation measures, starting with the 3-R concept (reduce, reuse, and recycle). An optimum scenario for the management of MSW would be an abatement plan for the leachate-induced groundwater pollution and a future plan for optimizing a suitable site for an engineered landfill to serve Makkah city according to the local, national and international guidelines.

Funding

The author would like to thank the Deanship of Scientific Research at Umm Al-Qura University for supporting this work by Grant Code: 22UQU4330935DSR01.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Location map of Makkah with respect to Saudi Arabia, (a): location map of Makkah with respect to KSA, and (b) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the main valleys passing through the Kaakia dumping site.
Figure 1. Location map of Makkah with respect to Saudi Arabia, (a): location map of Makkah with respect to KSA, and (b) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the main valleys passing through the Kaakia dumping site.
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Figure 2. Generated Municipal solid waste quantities in Makkah during 1993–2019.
Figure 2. Generated Municipal solid waste quantities in Makkah during 1993–2019.
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Figure 3. MSW characterization in Makkah.
Figure 3. MSW characterization in Makkah.
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Figure 4. Applied methodology throughout the current research.
Figure 4. Applied methodology throughout the current research.
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Figure 5. Location map of ambient air quality survey around Kaakia dumping site.
Figure 5. Location map of ambient air quality survey around Kaakia dumping site.
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Figure 6. Location map of the conducted GPR survey in the Kaakia dumping site.
Figure 6. Location map of the conducted GPR survey in the Kaakia dumping site.
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Figure 7. Annual wind rose of the Leith station near the Kaakia dumping site. (a) Average wind rose and (b) frequency distribution during 2019.
Figure 7. Annual wind rose of the Leith station near the Kaakia dumping site. (a) Average wind rose and (b) frequency distribution during 2019.
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Figure 8. Annual meteorological data around the Kaakia dumping site during 2019: (a) hourly average temperature, (b) relative humidity, and (c) rainfall.
Figure 8. Annual meteorological data around the Kaakia dumping site during 2019: (a) hourly average temperature, (b) relative humidity, and (c) rainfall.
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Figure 9. Levels of hourly average concentrations of ambient air quality as: (a,a’): Sulfur Dioxide, (b,b’) Nitrogen Dioxide, (c,c’) Carbon Monoxide, (d,d’) Ozone, (e,e’) Methane, and (f,f’) Respirable Particulates PM10 for the sites 1 and 2, respectively.
Figure 9. Levels of hourly average concentrations of ambient air quality as: (a,a’): Sulfur Dioxide, (b,b’) Nitrogen Dioxide, (c,c’) Carbon Monoxide, (d,d’) Ozone, (e,e’) Methane, and (f,f’) Respirable Particulates PM10 for the sites 1 and 2, respectively.
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Figure 10. GPR profiles of 100 MHz, throughout the body of the Kaakia dumping site, (a) GPR-1, and (b) GPR-2.
Figure 10. GPR profiles of 100 MHz, throughout the body of the Kaakia dumping site, (a) GPR-1, and (b) GPR-2.
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Figure 11. GPR profile along collection pond of leachate generated from Kaakia dumping site using 400 MHz.
Figure 11. GPR profile along collection pond of leachate generated from Kaakia dumping site using 400 MHz.
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Morsy, E.A. Geo-Environmental Evaluation of the Kaakia Landfill, Southwest Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Sustainability 2023, 15, 500. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010500

AMA Style

Morsy EA. Geo-Environmental Evaluation of the Kaakia Landfill, Southwest Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Sustainability. 2023; 15(1):500. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010500

Chicago/Turabian Style

Morsy, Essam A. 2023. "Geo-Environmental Evaluation of the Kaakia Landfill, Southwest Makkah, Saudi Arabia" Sustainability 15, no. 1: 500. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010500

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