Cybersecurity and Country of Origin: Towards a New Framework for Assessing Digital Product Domesticity
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Country-of-Origin Concept and Its Regulation
3. Research Method
4. Results
4.1. What Parameters Would Be Most Appropriate and Effective for Assessing Digital Product COO? (RQ1)
4.2. How Could the Application of These New COO Parameters Aid Home-Grown Digital Product Development? (RQ2)
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Specialty | Age | Organisation | Gender |
---|---|---|---|
R&D Director | 40 | Metropolitan Municipality | Female |
Head of Environmental Department | 45 | Environmental Protection | Male |
Head of Agricultural Services | 55 | Agricultural Services | Male |
Head of IT Department | 35 | Metropolitan Municipality | Male |
IT Manager | 35 | Water and Wastewater Treatment | Male |
Head of Environmental Protection Department | 45 | Water and Wastewater Treatment | Male |
Head of Geographical Information Systems | 40 | Water and Wastewater Treatment | Male |
Head of Water and Wastewater Treatment | 45 | Water and Wastewater Treatment | Male |
Treatment Plants Director | 35 | Treatment Plants | Male |
Transportation Director | 40 | Transportation | Male |
Industry Branch Manager | 45 | Chamber of Industry | Male |
Chef Executive Officer | 60 | Rail Systems | Male |
Software Manager | 45 | Wagon Production | Male |
SAP Manager | 45 | Aluminium Production | Male |
SAP Assistant Manager | 35 | Aluminium Production | Male |
SAP Assistant Manager | 35 | Aluminium Production | Male |
R&D Director | 50 | Tractor Production | Male |
Head of IOT Laboratory | 50 | IOT Laboratory | Male |
Head of Domestic Software Laboratory | 55 | Software Production | Male |
Respondents | Percentage | |
---|---|---|
Department | ||
IT | 9 | 8.8 |
Research and Development | 12 | 11.8 |
Environment | 21 | 20.6 |
Engineering | 28 | 27.5 |
Wastewater Treatment | 15 | 14.7 |
Other | 17 | 16.7 |
Experience | ||
Less than 1 year | 18 | 17.6 |
1–5 years | 30 | 29.4 |
6–10 years | 21 | 20.6 |
11–15 years | 21 | 20.6 |
More than 15 years | 12 | 11.8 |
Category/Influence | Parameters |
---|---|
Hardware Influence | Production Place Location |
Assembly Place Location | |
Raw Materials and Spare Parts Origin | |
Strategic Part Origin | |
Energy Source Origin | |
Software Production Influence | Inbound (Domestic Production Rate) Location |
Government Approved Project | |
Inbound (National IT Staff Rate) Software Project Team Size | |
Capability of Software Development based on New Technology Innovation | |
Software Capability of Sales in International Market | |
Compliance with International Standards for Exportable Produced Software | |
Software Library Origin | |
Digitalisation Platforms Influence | Website, Intranet, Cloud Technology Production Location |
Data Storage Location | |
Open-Source Code Ratio | |
Openness Rate | |
Community Support Availability | |
Open-Source Database Availability | |
Patented Software Design | |
Communication Infrastructure Origin | |
Document Format Origin | |
Open Platform Ratio | |
Operating System Origin | |
Web Server Origin | |
Protocol Origin | |
Hardware Related Operating System Origin | |
IT Outsource Influence | Supplier Production Place |
Supplier Headquarter Place | |
Configurated Software/Operating System Number | |
Source Code Analysis Origin | |
Data Security Test Maintenance Nationality | |
Producer Influence | Headquarter Location (The Location that is Registered Officially) |
Domestic Capital Ratio (Capital Amount from Domestic Resources) | |
Amount of Total Corporate Tax Paid to the State | |
Investment Revenue Costs | |
Employment Contribution | |
R&D Spending (As % of Capital Investment). |
Category/Influence | Parameters | Explanation | Importance | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hardware | Hardware Production Place | Measures the percentage of hardware elements within a product produced in any one country. For example, 60% in USA; 40% in Turkey. | Indicates the amount of direct investment in a country and thus the domesticity of the product. | ||
Hardware Assembly Place | Measures where the hardware elements of a product were assembled. For example, 15% in USA; 85% in Turkey. | Indicates the investment in assembly factories and workshops in any one country and thus the domesticity. | |||
Content Rate of Component Parts (Raw Materials and Spare Parts Origin) | Provides the content rate for component parts and spare parts origin deployed in hardware manufacture and maintenance. For example, 70% from USA; 15% from China; 15% from Turkey. | The provision of component parts and spare parts from within the user country reduces the import dependency and on-going cost. | |||
Software | Software Production Place | Measures the percentage of software elements within a product developed or produced in any one country. Must consider if it is outsourced. | Provides an indication of the domesticity of the product. | ||
Capability of On-going Software Development and Maintenance | Measures a country’s capability for software development and maintenance using country-based personnel. | Capability to manage software updates and on-going maintenance increases the domesticity rating. | |||
Compliance with International Standards | Assesses the compliance with international standards and thus the eligibility for subsequent foreign export. | Meeting necessary international compliance standards establishes the software competence and indicates potential security, privacy, and quality issues. | |||
Open-Source Code Ratio | Measures the ratio of software that is developed in an open-source environment. | Using open-source codes make it easier to solve problems rather than rely on proprietary products. | |||
Software Producer Headquarter Location | Measures software producer’s domesticity ratio, including for outsourced products. | Inbound headquarter location for suppliers has a positive impact on domesticity. | |||
Platforms Deployed | Software Development Platform Location | Denotes the location of platform upon which software deployed.May be in the cloud via SaaS. | Supplying software development platforms with domestic resources reduces foreign dependency and increases domesticity. | ||
Data Storage Location | Measures the domesticity rate based on location for data storage. Maybe in the cloud via IaaS, PaaS, or SaaS. | Storing data inside the country reduces the risk of a data breach and increases the country’s information security, improving data confidentiality, integrity, and availability. | |||
Data Security Test Maintenance Nationality | This entails support and collaboration for domestic independent security testing. There may be security faults in products that cause the disclosure of user information, and there may be cyber security vulnerabilities that the manufacturers themselves are not aware of. | In addition to complying with international standards, it is important that foreign manufacturers cooperate with local authorities for the independent testing of products. For example, for cyber security penetration tests, and providing detailed explanations for application programme interface connections of software components. | |||
Open-Source Database Availability | Measures the level of database usage with open-source resources. | Open-source databases prevent data breach possibilities and increases domesticity. | |||
Communication Infrastructure Origin | Measures the domesticity level of the communication infrastructure (e.g., Base station). | Supplying communication infrastructure and necessary data transfer technology inside the country increases the data privacy and national data security. | |||
Open Platform Ratio | Measures the ratio of software developed in an open platform environment. | An open platform will use open standards and documented APIs and is likely to reduce dependencies between development teams and certain application components. | |||
Producer of Final Product | Headquarter Location of Manufacturer of Final Product | Measures domesticity in terms of headquarter location. | Inbound headquarter location for the producer has a positive impact on domesticity. | ||
Domestic Capital Rate | Measures domesticity of capital used to finance the producer company. | Financing the producer capital with domestic investors should increase domesticity. | |||
Tax Payment to Domestic Country | Measures domesticity in terms of tax payment to the domestic country. | Paying taxes to the country it operates should increase the domesticity. | |||
Investment Revenue Costs in Domestic Country | Measures all investment costs in the domestic country, including R&D. | Spending more in the country should increase the domesticity. | |||
Employment Contribution | Measures the employment contribution level in the country. | Contributing to the labour force that it operates means selecting domestic labour and should increase the domesticity. |
Category/Influence | Parameters | Domesticity Assessment |
---|---|---|
Hardware | Hardware Production Place | No. |
Hardware Assembly Place | Yes. | |
Content rate of Component Parts (raw materials) and Spare Parts origin | No < 50%. | |
Software | Software Production Place | No. |
Capability of on-going Software Development and Maintenance | No. | |
Compliance with International Standards | Yes. It is allowed to export the product to other countries. | |
Open-Source Code Ratio | No < 50%, The operating system is Android which is open source, but the other software products are produced by Xiaomi itself. | |
Software Producer Headquarter Location | Not in Turkey. | |
Platforms Deployed | Software Development Platform Location | Not in Turkey. |
Data Storage Location | Not in Turkey. | |
Data Security Test Maintenance Nationality | Not in Turkey. | |
Open-Source Database Availability | No. | |
Communication Infrastructure Origin | Not in Turkey. | |
Open Platform Ratio | Low. | |
Producer of Final Product | Headquarter Location of Manufacturer of Final Product | Not in Turkey. |
Domestic Capital Rate | 0%. Total Chinese investment. | |
Tax Payment to Domestic Country | Yes. Corporate tax, value-added-tax, income tax. However, the amount is not explicitly given. | |
Investment Rate in Domestic Country | Yes. Building and factory. $30 million. | |
Employment Contribution | Yes, 2000 personnel. |
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Share and Cite
Ozdemir, S.; Wynn, M.; Metin, B. Cybersecurity and Country of Origin: Towards a New Framework for Assessing Digital Product Domesticity. Sustainability 2023, 15, 87. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010087
Ozdemir S, Wynn M, Metin B. Cybersecurity and Country of Origin: Towards a New Framework for Assessing Digital Product Domesticity. Sustainability. 2023; 15(1):87. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010087
Chicago/Turabian StyleOzdemir, Serkan, Martin Wynn, and Bilgin Metin. 2023. "Cybersecurity and Country of Origin: Towards a New Framework for Assessing Digital Product Domesticity" Sustainability 15, no. 1: 87. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010087
APA StyleOzdemir, S., Wynn, M., & Metin, B. (2023). Cybersecurity and Country of Origin: Towards a New Framework for Assessing Digital Product Domesticity. Sustainability, 15(1), 87. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010087