1. Introduction
Food waste refers to the uneaten food or food that is thrown away, whether it be at the farm, retail, or consumer level [
1]. Food waste is a growing problem with significant environmental, economic, and social consequences [
2]. A considerable amount of food (14%, or USD 400 billion annually) is lost every year after harvesting and before it reaches stores [
3], and an additional 17% is wasted between retail and consumers [
4]. Despite being a significant source of waste, food waste also represents a missed opportunity, as the food wasted globally could feed the estimated 1.26 billion people who suffer from hunger and malnutrition and stress our health system [
4]. Global food inequalities will deepen as the global population grows by 3 billion in 30 years. In 2030, the value of food lost or wasted yearly will reach USD 1.5 trillion, or 2.1 billion tons [
5]. Researchers estimate that wasted food accounts for 8–10% of worldwide greenhouse gas emissions [
6].
The hospitality industry, including hotels, restaurants, and catering services, is a major contributor to food waste [
7]. Furthermore, research on the primary causes of food waste in restaurants and hotels in developing and developed countries shows that food is often wasted during the consumption stage instead of the pre-consumption stage [
8]. Thus, the consumers, not the suppliers, should shoulder most of the blame. This phenomenon may be linked to irresponsible food ordering behavior of consumers. The hospitality industry has a significant opportunity to reduce food waste and create a more sustainable and efficient food system [
9].
China’s urban catering sector faces a significant issue of food waste, as consumers discard 17–18 million tons of food every year, enough to feed 30–50 million people [
10]. This amount of waste is equivalent to 150 times Japan’s annual food production [
8]. Despite the issue receiving attention on social media, there is a dearth of academic research on the subject, hampering the development of effective policies and practices [
11]. One contributing factor to this issue is the cultural value of ‘Mianzi,’ which is akin to the English phrase ‘to save face.’ [
12]. In social dining situations, Chinese hosts often order more food than necessary to avoid losing face and feeling embarrassed if their guests consume most of the food. To combat this problem, the Chinese government launched the Clean Plate Campaign in 2013, and a new phase began in 2020, aimed at reducing food waste by individuals and businesses [
12]. The campaign’s slogan, “Waste is shameful, and thriftiness is honourable”, seeks to encourage individuals to reduce food waste. The campaign coincided with an anti-corruption drive aimed at curtailing the lavish banquets funded by the government, which were rampant in Chinese bureaucracies [
13]. Top officials have emphasized the need to reduce food waste, and there has been a drop in the sale of luxury food items by as much as 50%, according to China’s Commerce Ministry [
13].
Consequently, the catering industry in Beijing and Shanghai has seen a significant decline of up to 35%. Although the campaign has raised public awareness and led to a 50% reduction in some catering companies, more effort is needed to address this pressing sustainability challenge [
13]. The statistics underscore the enormity of the issue and the necessity for effective policies and practices to combat food waste in China.
The food service industry is responsible for around 50% of the total food waste generated in China, which is attributed to irresponsible consumer behavior when placing orders [
8]. To combat this issue, there is a pressing need to establish a comprehensive framework to identify the root causes of restaurant over-ordering behavior.
The combination of the TPB [
14] and NAM [
15] theories has been deemed essential for comprehending the issue of excessive food ordering and waste in the hospitality sector and developing effective solutions to address it. These theories were selected due to their established track record in explaining waste-related contexts, as evidenced by
Table 1 and
Table 2. The integrative TPB-NAM model accounts for both rational and moral considerations, as noted by Shin et al. [
16], and strives to strike a balance between pro-self and pro-social concerns in food ordering behavior. However, some experts have criticized the TPB for its sole focus on rational decision making, overlooking non-rational and altruistic motivations that may influence behavior [
17]. As a result, the TPB’s effectiveness in explaining pro-social and pro-environmental actions has been questioned by Shin et al. [
16]. Nevertheless, by combining the TPB and NAM models, the study aims to provide further insight into the interplay between pro-self and pro-social factors.
Cultural values such as “Mianzi” or “face-saving” play a significant role in shaping food over-ordering behavior in restaurants [
18]. In many cultures, not ordering enough food can be seen as a loss of face, leading individuals to over-order to avoid appearing stingy or rude [
19]. This cultural norm of face-saving can contribute to food waste in the hospitality sector [
18]. The moderating role of cultural values such as face-saving or public image in the context of food over-ordering behavior in restaurants has been largely overlooked in prior research [
8,
20]. It is essential to consider these cultural values as they play a significant role in shaping the attitudes and behaviors of individuals in a given cultural context and thus have the potential to moderate the relationship between norms, attitudes, and intent towards food over-ordering in restaurants. Accordingly, we conceptualize a comprehensive model by incorporating cultural values that can provide a more accurate understanding of the food over-ordering phenomenon in the hospitality industry and develop effective strategies to reduce food waste in restaurants.
Table 1.
Underpinning TPB in the waste context.
Table 1.
Underpinning TPB in the waste context.
Author | Country Focus | Study Focus | Underpinning Theory |
---|
Hu et al. [21] | Japan | Pro-environmental behavior (waste Separation) | TPB |
Zhang et al. [22] | China | Pro-environmental behavior (waste Separation) | TPB |
Coşkun and Yetkin Özbük [23] | Turkey | Pro-environmental behavior (food waste) | TPB |
Heidari et al. [24] | Iran | Pro-environmental behavior (waste Separation) | TPB |
Li et al. [25] | China | Pro-environmental behavior (waste reduction) | TPB |
Soomro et al. [26] | Saudi Arabia | Pro-environmental behavior (waste recycling) | TPB |
Graham-Rowe et al. [27] | United Kingdom | Pro-environmental behavior (food waste reduction) | TPB |
Mak et al. [28] | Hong Kong | Pro-environmental behavior (food waste recycling) | TPB |
Table 2.
Underpinning NAM in the waste context.
Table 2.
Underpinning NAM in the waste context.
Author | Country Focus | Study Focus | Underpinning Theory |
---|
Wang et al. [29] | China | Pro-environmental behavior (waste Separation) | NAM |
Kim et al. [30] | South Korea | Pro-environmental behavior (food waste reduction) | NAM |
Wang et al. [31] | China | Pro-environmental behavior (food waste) | NAM |
Nketiah et al. [32] | China | Pro-environmental behavior (waste recycling) | NAM |
Song et al. [33] | China | Pro-environmental behavior (reusable express packaging) | NAM |
Han [34] | USA | Pro-environmental behavior (responsible tourism) | NAM |
Savari et al. [35] | IRAN | Pro-environmental behavior (Water conservation) | NAM |
Zhang et al. [36] | China | Pro-environmental behavior (energy saving) | NAM |
In this regard, the current study aims to contribute to the literature in the following ways: (1) the current study provides a comprehensive theoretical framework by integrating the norm activation model (NAM) and the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to understand the over-ordering behavior of consumers better; (2) the previous literature is limited in explaining Chinese consumer behavior for over-ordering behavior in social dining. So, the current study is opening new insights into the Chinese context. The current study also investigated the moderating role of Mianzi (cultural elements) that influence the over-ordering behavior in social dining, which is scarce in the literature.
5. Discussion and Implications
This research combines the NAM and the TPB to explore the factors influencing customers’ tendency to over-order in Chinese restaurants. The results highlight the significant contributions of personal norms, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control in predicting over-ordering behavior [
39]. The research underscores the importance of cultural aspects in molding consumption patterns and provides valuable guidance to encourage sustainable practices in the restaurant sector. The outcomes indicate that Mianzi, a concept associated with social status and reputation, holds significant sway over consumers’ conduct, especially in social dining contexts [
42]. The study shows that Mianzi can overpower an individual’s inclination to order prudently and prevent food wastage. This behavior is mainly motivated by the urge to demonstrate hospitality, avoid uncomfortable social situations, and uphold a favorable social image [
18,
36,
42].
The current study suggested that consumers feel morally obligated to reduce food waste if they know the consequences of food waste. They understand their responsibility towards society and need to save food for others by ordering sensibly. The results are consistent with previous research [
62,
63], indicating the importance of awareness of consequences and ascription of responsibility in developing consumers’ personal norm in the context of pro-environmental behavior. Moreover, the results showed that consumers with strong personal or moral norms tend to have less attitude towards over-ordering behavior. The results are in line with some pro-environmental research [
44], which explains that consumers with high personal norms are more environmentally conscious and consume sensibly. It means Chinese consumers are concerned about food waste and feel morally obligated to reduce waste.
The constructs of the TPB have a positive association with over-ordering behavior. The current study confirms the results of previous studies [
8,
20,
38,
39,
64], which suggested that attitude, subjective norm, and PBC positively affect over-ordering behavior. The probable reason for the result can be that consumers feel pleasant, satisfied, and gratification while ordering more than their appetite warrants, particularly when they have many choices on the menu in social dining. They like to over-order in front of their friends and family for social applause or social identification, which causes food wastage. The ease of ordering and the availability of items in a restaurant can provoke consumers to engage in over-ordering behavior due to interventions from waiters. Waiters often make persuasive suggestions or recommendations, create social pressure, provide incomplete or biased information, rush customers to make decisions, or use suggestive language that can influence consumers to order more items or larger portions [
8]. These interventions from the waiter can contribute to over-ordering behavior as consumers may feel compelled to comply with the waiter’s suggestions, conform to social norms or expectations, succumb to time pressures or incomplete information, or seek to maximize perceived value or gain the waiter’s approval [
8].
The study suggests that Mianzi is crucial in moderating the relationship between personal norms and attitudes towards over-ordering behavior. Consumers with strong personal norms are likelier to order sensibly and avoid wasting food [
41]. However, in social dining, Mianzi appears to take precedence over an individual’s moral obligation, and consumers may order excessive amounts of food to avoid any potential inconvenience. This behavior could also stem from the desire to demonstrate hospitality by ordering an abundance of food for guests and avoiding social embarrassment [
30]. In essence, the study highlights the potential conflict between personal norms and social norms in the Chinese cultural context. Although personal norms may dictate that individuals order sensibly and avoid wasting food, the pressure to maintain Mianzi may override this moral obligation, leading to increased over-ordering behavior [
30,
43].
The results of this research align with earlier studies that have demonstrated the significant influence of Mianzi on individuals’ conduct in Chinese culture. Prior research has revealed that individuals may consume higher to uphold their social image or exhibit their affluence and position [
12,
44]. Furthermore, in group settings, individuals may be more inclined to follow social norms to prevent causing social discomfort or losing face. The study stresses the critical role of cultural aspects in determining individuals’ attitudes and actions regarding over-ordering in China. It highlights the possible conflict between personal norms and social norms in the context of Mianzi. It emphasizes the importance of comprehending the intricate interaction between these factors to design effective measures to address over-ordering in restaurants.
5.1. Theoretical Contribution
The current study contributes theoretically in three ways. First, the study emphasized the most important research topic recently, i.e., food wastage from the consumers’ point of view. As food over-ordering behavior is the primary cause of food wastage, there is limited research in this area. Therefore, the present study fulfills this gap by providing an integrated model that comprehensively explains the consumers’ over-ordering phenomena in social dining. Second, NAM and TPB are widely used to independently independently independently explore the consumers’ intention in the pro-environmental consumption behavior such as food waste. There is scarce research that provides a comprehensive, integrated model which explains the consumers’ over-ordering behavior in the Chinese context. So, this study contributes to the existing literature by opening new insights. Third, few studies have looked into cultural value, or the sense of Mianzi in over-ordering behavior. The study adds to the previously limited knowledge of potential moderators of direct TPB correlations by empirically investigating the interaction effects of Mianzi. Our findings that Mianzi has a moderating effect on the relationship between personal norm and attitude toward over-ordering help to improve understanding of these cultural variables in social eating by providing insight into their impact on customers’ proclivity to over-order. As a result, the current study emphasizes the significance of personal traits in consumer decision making. It directs future studies to take these elements into account when modeling consumer behavior in various situations.
5.2. Practical Implications
The research findings show that attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavior control positively affect consumer intention towards food over-ordering in restaurants. Policymakers can play a crucial role in reducing food waste. Policymakers can work with NGOs and other organizations to develop and promote awareness campaigns highlighting the negative impacts of food over-ordering and encouraging consumers to reduce food waste. These campaigns can help build negative attitudes towards food over-ordering by highlighting the negative consequences of this behavior. Moreover, policymakers can also invest in education and training programs to help raise awareness of the importance of reducing food waste and encourage more sustainable food practices. For example, they could provide resources and training to help consumers make more informed food choices and reduce food waste. In addition, policymakers can offer incentives to businesses and consumers to encourage more sustainable food practices. For example, they could provide tax breaks or other financial incentives to businesses that reduce food waste or to consumers who adopt more sustainable food practices.
The study shows that individuals’ personal norms significantly impact their desire to decrease food waste. To encourage more environmentally friendly food ordering habits, the government should give greater consideration to these personal norms. Measures such as advertising and education can be implemented to spread awareness of the environmental advantages of eco-friendly food ordering practices and to emphasize consumers’ ethical responsibility to adopt sustainable consumption behavior. Once individuals establish personal standards, they may feel compelled to engage in responsible consumption due to a sense of moral duty. Furthermore, the outcomes of our research can serve as a roadmap for the government in fostering individuals’ personal norms. This is because the study highlights the significance of understanding the consequences and assigning personal responsibility in shaping personal norms. The government could utilize social media platforms to raise awareness about the negative impacts of food waste, such as environmental degradation and climate change.
More importantly, the study results reveal that the sense of Mianzi negatively moderates the relationship between personal norms and attitude towards less food ordering. Policymakers can use the concept of Mianzi to discourage excessive food ordering by appealing to individuals’ sense of dignity, self-esteem, and reputation. For example, they can create social campaigns that educate consumers about the environmental consequences of over-ordering food and emphasize the social value of responsible food consumption. Additionally, they can create incentives for individuals and businesses to adopt sustainable food ordering practices, such as offering tax credits or recognition for those who demonstrate their commitment to reducing food waste. By appealing to consumers’ sense of Mianzi, policymakers can encourage them to adopt responsible food ordering behaviors and reduce the amount of food waste generated. Additionally, they can create regulations or guidelines that promote responsible food ordering practices in the food industry, such as limiting portion sizes or requiring restaurants to offer takeaway containers for leftovers. Through these efforts, policymakers can work to create a culture of responsible food consumption and reduce food waste.
5.3. Limitations and Future Research
Despite the contribution to the literature, the current study is not without limitations. First, the current study used cross-sectional data for the analysis. However, there can be the issue of biases in the data. So, for generalizability, longitudinal studies should be conducted. Second, the current study tested only one cultural value, i.e., Mianzi, in over-ordering behavior. However, the involvement of other cultural or situational factors can be tested. Third, the current study integrates NAM with TPB. However, value belief norm theory is the advanced version of the NAM and explains the sequential relationship between the value belief and norms of individuals. So, future researchers can integrate VBN theory with the TPB to better understand the phenomena.