Next Article in Journal
Mechanical Properties of Engineered Cementitious Composites with Low Cost Fibers and Recycled Glass Filler
Next Article in Special Issue
A Study on the Impacts of One-Strut Failure Scenarios for Deep Excavation in Loose to Medium-Dense Sand
Previous Article in Journal
Study on the Reflective Principle and Long-Term Skid Resistance of a Sustainable Hydrophobic Hot-Melt Marking Paint
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 15
Issue 13
10.3390/su15139951
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Effect of High Temperature on the Expansion and Durability of SSRSC

by
Keng-Ta Lin
1,
Her-Yung Wang
2,*,
Yi-Ta Hsieh
2 and
Tien-Chun Kao
2
1
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Kaohsiung, Kaohsiung 811726, Taiwan
2
Department of Civil Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 807618, Taiwan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(13), 9951; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15139951
Submission received: 14 May 2023 / Revised: 18 June 2023 / Accepted: 20 June 2023 / Published: 22 June 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability Assessment and Optimization of Geotechnical Engineering)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study explores the potential of using stainless steel slag, an industrial by-product of the stainless steel refining process, as a substitute for cement in concrete to promote material reuse and ecological sustainability. The research involves preparing concrete a cylindrical specimen with varying levels of substitution, ranging from 0 to 20%, and curing them for different ages (1, 3, 7, 28, and 56 days) to evaluate the engineering durability of the resulting stainless steel reducing slag concrete (SSRSC). The study found that the compressive strength of the SSRSC at 28 days was 27.44 MPa, with a splitting strength ranging from 12.81 MPa to 15.34 MPa. As the substitution amount increased, the strength decreased, but there was a positive correlation between the compressive and splitting strength. The ultrasonic wave velocity growth also increased with each substitution amount, showing that the compactness and growth of the samples improved. The surface resistance of all the samples was lower than 20 kΩ-cm, indicating that the porosity and change in porosity caused by substitution were minimal. Regarding durability, the study found that high-temperature fire damage at 200 °C catalyzed the quality, compressive strength, and resistance, but the ultrasonic wave velocity decreased. After fire damage at 600 °C and 800 °C, the compressive strength of the samples decreased by 48–57% and 76–85%, respectively, indicating that higher temperatures have a greater effect on concrete and resistance to early aging. In terms of sulfate corrosion resistance, a higher substitution amount reduced the likelihood of spalling during the early stages of the cycle, and the cumulative weight after the fifth cycle was higher than that of the control group. The autoclave expansion test revealed that the later curing age of the sample, the greater the expansion and the amount of substitution. The porosity of the samples also increased with higher temperatures and substitution amounts.

1. Introduction

In recent years, a large amount of waste has not only caused a crisis that cannot be eliminated but also caused environmental problems [1,2,3,4]. Cement and steel production processes, especially, have caused significant social and environmental impacts in terms of CO2 emissions [5,6]. Therefore, the concept of sustainable development for waste removal or reuse has attracted increased attention [7,8,9,10]. The cement manufacturing industry accounts for approx. 7–8% of global carbon dioxide emissions. Using waste to replace part of the cement in concrete will help reduce carbon dioxide emissions. For instance, steel production creates by-products, such as blast furnace slag (BFS), which can benefit the environment by reducing CO2 emissions when added as a partial replacement for cement in concrete [11]. With the complexity of adding materials to concrete, concrete testing must be more precise, and more testing methods are needed to achieve the highest objective judgment and evaluate safety [12,13]. The indicators for evaluating the quality and safety of concrete include its strength, durability, and volume stability. Industrial by-products such as ash, marble and glass dust, silica fume, old tires, recycled pozzolan, and blast furnace slag are commonly used as materials for the production of recycled self-compacting concrete [14,15,16,17]. Additionally, BFS has been used instead of kaolin in ceramic industrial manufacturing and to design different ceramic composite mixing formulations [18].
The smelting process in an electric arc furnace (EAF) involves two key stages: oxidation and reduction. During the smelting oxidation stage, the stainless steel oxide slag (SSOS) rises to the top layer of the molten iron and is formed there. Then, to facilitate the reduction reaction, CaO is added to the mixture, which helps eliminate the oxygen and sulfur in the molten iron. As part of this process, the slag produced by the furnace can be classified into oxidized and reduced slag. According to a report by Zion Market Research in 2020, the global stainless steel slag market was valued at around USD 6.5 billion in 2019 and is expected to reach around USD 9.5 billion by 2026, growing at a compound annual growth rate of approximately 5.2% between 2020 and 2026. Therefore, stainless steel reducing slag (SSRS), a by-product of stainless steel production, can be used in various applications such as building materials, cement production, and road construction [19] to eliminate or reuse waste effectively.
Research on turning waste into concrete and mortar has become increasingly intensive worldwide. Studies have documented the improved properties and contribution of blended cement concrete for mitigating environmental impact and enhancing global conservation efforts [20,21,22,23]. The steel slag, a by-product of the steelmaking process, comprises calcium oxides, silica, magnesium, and oxides [24]. Teo et al., indicated that future research on recycling steel slag should focus on separation techniques that diversify the recycling options for steel slag, thereby increasing the recycling rate of the waste product [25].
In Taiwan, researchers have conducted extensive studies on using steelmaking slag, such as basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag, desulfurization slag, and EAF slag, for various purposes. The issue of recycling waste is critical and must be addressed [26,27]. In Taiwan, reclaimed scrap steel and iron are the primary raw materials used for EAF steelmaking, producing oxidizing slag during pre-processing and reducing slag during post-processing. The total output of oxidizing slag is approximately 860,000 MT, while the total output of reducing slag is around 240,000 MT [28,29]. On average, the production of 1 MT of pig iron generates 300 kg of blast furnace slag, and the production of 1 MT of crude steel from the converter and electric arc furnace produces approximately 130 kg of BOF slag or 100–200 kg of electric furnace slag [30,31]. The furnace slag undergoes stabilization, crushing, and screening on the dumping ground to become a recycled product. However, the traditional processing method fails to convert free lime and magnesia into calcium hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide, which can cause deterioration issues after the concrete has hardened. As a result, subsequent stabilization is essential and is a key factor in the government’s efforts to promote the reuse of reducing slag [32].
According to the study conducted by Wang et al., when steel slag was used to replace a certain proportion of cement in concrete, the compressive strength of the concrete initially increased and then decreased. The maximum compressive strength was achieved when 20% of the cement was replaced [33]. Additionally, if the water-to-cement ratio increased, the compressive strength of the concrete decreased. If the water-to-cement ratio exceeded 0.5, the effectiveness of steel slag as a replacement for cement was reduced, leading to a decrease in the compressive strength of the concrete. A water-to-cement ratio below 0.35 hurt the compressive strength of the concrete, possibly due to an inadequate water content leading to a variable composition and a weakening of the concrete. Therefore, the researchers recommended properly controlling the water-to-cement ratio while preparing steel slag concrete to maintain its mechanical properties [34]. Using steel slag as a binder material in concrete enhances its strength, impermeability to chloride ions, and resistance to carbonation at a later stage. The mechanical properties of concrete with EAF slag aggregates are significantly higher than that without EAF slag aggregates. The durability measurements of drying shrinkage, abrasion resistance, and freeze–thaw resistance showed that using EAF slag as a coarse aggregate improved the performance of steel fiber-reinforced concrete (SFRC) [35].
There are many studies on the practical application of SSRS in public construction. Most of the research conclusions point to how to stabilize it effectively. The main reason is that there are free calcium oxide (f-CaO), free magnesium oxide (f-MgO), and SO3 in SSRS, which often cause swelling or cracking during the hydration reaction [36]. The research results related to SSRS included creating cement mortar, ready-mixed soil material (RMSM) [37], etc. Approx. 20% of the cement should be replaced with stainless steel slag to create the mortar, and the expansion can be controlled below 0.06% when the water–binder ratio is 0.4 and 0.5 [38]. Using SSRS as a cement substitute in self-compacting concrete slightly reduces its fresh characteristics and compressive strength. When the replacement amount of SSRS is within 30%, it can exhibit a good density, surface resistance value, sulfate corrosion, and a good durability [39]. SSRS improves the workability of ready-mixed concrete due to its lower water absorption properties. The more that is used, the better the workability and the longer the setting time.
SSRS is a silicon-containing recycled material sintered at high temperatures. Before using it as concrete aggregates, it is essential to eliminate f-CaO oxides and f-MgO oxides that may cause the concrete to expand to ensure safe usage. The main factors driving the expansion are the free oxides, curing temperature, and particle size of the steel slag [20,40]. Therefore, appropriate treatment must be performed through stabilization, including quality control, testing, and treatment, to ensure that the SSRS can be properly used in construction [21].
To ensure that the stabilized SSRS can be effectively used in general engineering, this study used finely ground SSRS at 3000 cm2/g as a replacement for cement in ϕ10 × 20 cm stainless steel reducing slag concrete (SSRSC) specimens. Additionally, this study performed fresh property, hardening property, and durability tests to determine the optimal replacement ratio, reduce the cement content in the concrete material, reduce the CO2 derived from the cement manufacture, and eventually mitigate the greenhouse effect.

2. Test Plan

2.1. Test Materials

The SSRS was the industrial by-product of the scrap steel and scrap iron refining of Walsin Lihwa Steel that was stabilized and ground into a powder at a fineness of 3000 cm2/g. The cement was Portland cement Type I meeting CNS 61, the aggregate was natural river sandstone from the Ligang District in Pingtung, and the particle size distribution curves conformed with those of CNS 1240. The properties of the SSRS, cement, and aggregate are shown in Table 1 and Table 2.

2.2. Variables and Ratio of Unit Weight

The concrete mix in this study was designed according to the American Concrete Institute (ACI) concrete design method. The amounts of the SSRS substituted for partial cement were 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20%. The cylinder specimen of ϕ10 × 20 cm was cured in saturated limewater, and the hardened properties (compressive strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and surface resistance), high-temperature effect, and durability were tested at 1, 3, 7, 28, and 56 days. For the high-temperature test, the specimen was dried in an oven to measure the oven-dry weight, and the temperature was increased to 200, 600, and 800 °C within one hour inside the high-temperature furnace. The temperature was maintained for two hours before being naturally cooled to a normal temperature, and then, the properties affected by the high temperature were measured. The ratio of unit weight of the SSRSC is shown in Table 3.

2.3. Test Methods and Items

In terms of a slump for the fresh concrete properties, the concrete flowability and workability were determined according to ASTM C143 [41]. The slump of the concrete was measured by measuring the distance from the top of the slumped concrete to the level of the top of the slump cone.
This study aimed to comprehend the concrete hardness properties through concrete compression and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) tests. In terms of the compressive strength, the variation in the concrete strength at different ages was assessed with respect to ASTM C39 [42]. The UPV was tested according to ASTM C597 [43] to examine the compactness of the specimen. This method mainly used the probe to measure the received time when the ultrasonic wave was transmitted in the concrete specimen to measure the UPV, which could be used to judge the compactness of the concrete. Generally, when the UPV exceeded 4000 m/s, it was identified as dense concrete. The surface resistance measured by the instrument according to ASTM C876 [44] was the indirect index of the compactness of the specimen surface. To judge the effect of the percentage of the cement replaced by the SSRSC on the compactness of concrete, we verified that the surface resistance of the specimens with different substitution amounts was below 20.
The high-temperature test aimed to measure the weight loss, residual compressive strength, residual UPV, and residual surface resistance at high temperatures. The specimens were taken out of the saturated lime water curing pond once they reached the required testing age. Subsequently, they were placed in a 120 °C oven for drying and weight measurement. Later, they were subjected to high-temperature tests in a Nabertherm 1200 °C muffle high-temperature furnace for further analysis. For each experiment, the high-temperature furnace was set to reach 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C within an hour, respectively. To simulate the conditions at a fire scene where temperatures can rise to 1000 °C quickly, the specimen was left to burn for an additional 2 h after reaching the set maximum temperature. To prevent any damage due to sudden temperature drops, the specimen was naturally cooled to room temperature inside the furnace. This also helped to avoid any secondary damage caused by the large temperature gradient. The weight of the specimen was used to evaluate its weight loss rate at high temperatures after being cooled to room temperature.
The residual surface resistance was measured using the surface resistance test, following AASHTO T 277 [45] and ASTM C1202 [46], at high temperatures. Its purpose was to determine the electrical conductance of the concrete and quickly indicate its resistance to the penetration of chloride ions.
The resistance to sulfate attack was tested according to ASTM C1012 [47]. At different curing ages, the specimen was dried in an oven to measure the oven-dry weight, placed in saturated sodium sulfate solution for 16 h, and dried after five consecutive cycles to measure the variation in weight.
The autoclave expansion was tested according to ASTM C151 [48] at different curing ages. The specimen was placed in the autoclave for 45 to 75 min until the pressure reached 305 to 330 psi and the relative temperature was 216 °C. The pressure was maintained for 3 h, and the length change was measured after decompression.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Slump

As shown in Figure 1, the workability of the SSRSC increased with the replacement of the SSRS for the cement content. The slump was from 7.5 to 9.5 cm when the substitution amount was from 0 to 10%; a substitution amount up to 10% did not exceed the slump design value, indicating a favorable lubricity after the SSRS replaced the cement. The slump of the control group (no replacement) was 7.5 cm, and the workability was lower. The slumps of concrete with substitution amounts of 5% and 10% were 8.9 cm and 9.5 cm, respectively, indicating an effective increase in the workability. The stainless steel slag reduced the water absorption and expansion rate, and its particle shape and surface condition enhances the concrete density and flowability [49,50]. The slump values of the concrete with substitution amounts of 15% and 20% were 10.7 cm and 11.5 cm, respectively, and the cement content was 309~328 kg/m3, suggesting that the cement content decreased as the substitution amount increased.

3.2. Compressive Strength

In this study, the specified compressive strength of the concrete was 24.01 MPa. Since no test record was available to calculate the standard deviation, the target average compressive strength of the mix design was calculated using the ACI 318 standard [51] recommended value (8.33 MPa). Therefore, the target average compressive strength of the concrete mix design at 28 days was 32.34 MPa, and the required strength of general structures was 27.44 MPa.
Figure 2 shows that the compressive strength of the control group at the age of 28 days was 34.60 MPa. The compressive strength of the SSRSC at the age of 28 days was 27.65 MPa when the substitution amount was 5%. The compressive strength was 32.27 MPa when the substitution amount was 10%, indicating that the target compressive strength (32.34 MPa) could be reached when the substitution amounts were 5% and 10%, meeting the intended design requirement. The compressive strength was 32.98 MPa when the substitution amount was 10%, and the compressive strength ratio was 1.02 times the target compressive strength and 1.37 times the design strength.
Based on the test results, it was found that the compressive strength ratio of the control group varied at different ages with different SRSS replacement amounts. At the age of 1 day, the strength ratio for the concrete with substitution amounts of 0% to 20% differed by 30%, but this difference decreased to 9% at the age of 56 days. This implied that the impact of the substitution amount on the strength gradually decreased with age. According to the data, at 28 days and 56 days, the compressive strength ratio of the concrete with a 5% substitution showed a difference of 7% and 4%, respectively. Meanwhile, the concrete with a 10% substitution differed between 5% and 3%. These results suggest that replacing 10% of the cement with SSRS provides the most significant advantage. A similar occurrence was observed by Sheen et al. [50] and Wang et al. [33] in their prior studies on self-compacting concrete and cement mortar when SRSS was added.

3.3. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

As shown in Figure 3, the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) was 4049 m/s when the substitution amount was 5% at the age of 1 day, and the UPV gradually decreased to 3968 m/s, 3899 m/s, and 3822 m/s when the substitution amount was 10, 15, and 20%, respectively, indicating that the UPV of the SSRSC at an early age decreased as the substitution amount increased. Based on the data collected, it can be observed that when the SSRS substitution amounts in the samples were within the range of 10 to 20%, the UPVs were approximately 4000 m/s. This suggests that the concrete had a high density.
The UPV at the age of 3 days was 4040–4410 m/s, and the density was greater than 4000 m/s. The UPV of the control group at the age of 28 to 56 days was 4762–4817 m/s, and the value of the concrete with a substitution amount of 5% was 4619–4793 m/s. Specifically, the UPV of the concrete samples with a substitution amount of 5% was closed to that of the control group at 56 days. Furthermore, with a 10% substitution of the SSRS, the concrete sample’s UPV reached up to 4500 m/s, indicating an excellent density.
The changes in the UPV of the concrete samples with various mixture proportions were observed based on the UPV of the control group. The difference in the UPV between the concrete samples with substitution amounts of 20% and 0% was 6% at the age of 1 day, 8% at 28 days, and 5% at 56 days. When SSRS was used to replace the cement, there was a slight difference in the UPV ratios of the SSRSC and the control group, which first increased and then decreased with the curing age. Although the UPVs of SSRSC were found to be lower than the control group during each curing age, it exceeded 4000 m/s at 28 days, exhibiting a good density. Interestingly, when the cement was substituted with 10% SSRS, the UPV of the SSRSC exceeded 4500 m/s at 28 days, suggesting that 10% SSRS could be a viable option for substitution. One reason for using SSRS instead of cement in SSRSC is to enhance the lubricity between the aggregates and improve the workability during mixing, ultimately resulting in a denser SSRSC.

3.4. Surface Resistance

As shown in Table 4, the surface resistances of the SSRSCs with various substitution amounts were lower than 20 kΩ-cm and similar to each other, increasing with age. Therefore, the surface resistance of the concrete decreased after the cement was replaced with SSRS. For the control group, the surface resistance values at ages 1, 3, 7, 28, and 56 days were 7.45, 8.67, 9.20, 9.87, and 10.73 kΩ-cm, respectively. Notably, the increase in the amplitude for each curing stage was the highest between ages 1 and 3 days.
The surface resistance of the control group at the age of 7 days was higher than that of the concrete with a substitution amount of 5% by approximately 0.5 kΩ-cm, higher than that of the concrete with a substitution amount of 10% by approximately 0.89 kΩ-cm, and higher than that of the concrete with a substitution amount of 20% by approximately 1.17 kΩ-cm, suggesting that the decreasing resistance amplitude decreased gradually as the substitution amount increased.
The surface resistance of the control group at the age of 28 days was higher than that of the samples with a substitution amount of 20% by approximately 0.79 kΩ-cm. The surface resistances of the concrete with various substitution amounts were quite similar to each other, as the difference between the samples with substitution amounts of 10% to 20% was less than 0.1 kΩ-cm, implying that the variation in the surface resistance decreased as the substitution amount increased.
The surface resistances of the control group at the age of 56 days and of the samples with a substitution amount of 5% were higher than those of the samples with a substitution amount of 10% by approximately 0.73 kΩ-cm and 0.47 kΩ-cm, respectively, and the variation in the surface resistance increased slightly. The difference between the samples with a substitution amount of 10% and 20% was 0.2 kΩ-cm, which was slightly higher than the difference observed at the age of 28 days.
The surface resistance of the SSRSC with a substitution amount of 0% to 20% at the age of 1 day was increased by approximately 0.35 kΩ-cm. The variation was not apparent for the samples with a substitution amount of 5% at the age of 1 day since the value was equivalent to the control group, as shown in Figure 4. The surface resistance was approximately 0.2 kΩ-cm lower than the control group at the age of 3 days, and approximately 0.5 kΩ-cm lower at the age of 7 days, suggesting that the difference increased gradually with age. The value was increased by 0.62 kΩ-cm when the substitution amount was 10% at the age of 1 day to 3 days and increased by 0.29 kΩ-cm between the age of 3 days and 7 days, suggesting a slight variation at the age between 1 day and 7 days and a decrease in the amplitude of growth. The surface resistance was increased by 0.89 kΩ-cm at the age of 28 days compared to that at the age of 7 days, and the difference compared to the sample with a substitution amount of 5% was reduced, indicating that the degree of hydration improved the surface resistance. The surface resistance was 9.53 kΩ-cm at the age of 56 days, and the amplitude of growth decreased again. The variation of the concrete with a substitution amount of 15% was similar to that of the sample with a substitution amount of 20%, and the difference did not exceed 0.2 kΩ-cm at various ages, indicating relatively similar surface porosities. Based on these results, the substitution amount of 5% exhibited the closest surface resistance to the control group and a lower surface porosity.

3.5. Weight Loss Induced by High Temperatures

As shown in Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7, the weight loss of the concrete decreased as the SSRS substitution amount increased. The weight of the control group 7 days after the fire spread at the high temperature of 200 °C was reduced, and the weight of the concrete with a substitution amount of 20% was increased by only 0.6%. However, the effect of the fire hazard temperature with a lower damage level on SSRSC was reduced. After the fire spread at a high temperature (800 °C), the weight of the concrete with a substitution amount of 20% was reduced by approximately 3.8% at the age of 7 days and by approximately 4.2% at the age of 56 days. The losses at the various ages were less than the loss of the control group, in which approximately 2.9% to 3.3% of the weight remained. Therefore, at a higher temperature, the SSRSC was still effective and displayed a reduced weight loss.
The weight loss of the SSRSC increased with high temperatures. The effect of a high temperature of 200 °C resulted in weight losses of less than 1.5% in the concrete samples with different substitution amounts at the ages of 7 days and 28 days. The weight increased as the substitution amount increased and even generated catalysis as the concrete at the age of 56 days maintained approximately zero weight loss. After the temperature was increased to 600 °C, the concrete with any substitution amount presented weight loss, and the maximum loss was 4.5% (approximately three-fold the maximum loss observed at 200 °C). At a high temperature of 800 °C, the minimum weight loss at the age of 56 days was 4.2%, which was similar to the maximum loss of 4.5% at 600 °C, suggesting that 800 °C represented a more significant fire hazard to concrete than 600 °C.

3.6. Residual Compressive Strength at High Temperatures

As shown in Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10, the loss of strength was attenuated slightly after the cement was replaced with SSRS, as the strength of the control group decreased at the high temperature of 200 °C at various ages, and the maximum loss rate was reached after the fire spread at the high temperatures of 600 °C and 800 °C. The strength increased slightly at the high temperature of 200 °C at the age of 7 days when the SSRSC substitution amount was 10%, and the strength was lost with age after the fire spread. This finding may have been because 200 °C exerted a catalytic effect on the early strength, and the connection between the aggregates was damaged after the concrete growth was completed such that the strength decreased slightly. The maximum substitution amount of 20% exhibited growth at 200 °C, which was most apparent at the age of 28 days, and the minimum loss of strength remained at 600 °C, indicating that the SSRS apparently maintained its strength at this temperature. The maximum loss of strength of 79% at the age of 7 days occurred at 800 °C, suggesting that the ability of SSRS to maintain the concrete strength was reduced at 800 °C.
The effect of the high temperature of 200 °C contributed to concrete hydration, and thus, the strength of the concrete with different substitution amounts increased. The loss of strength at 600 °C was greater than that at 200 °C by at least 50%. The loss of strength at 800 °C was less than that at 600 °C, and the minimum residual strength was reached at the age of 7 days, with 76% to 79% remaining at the ages of 28 days and 56 days. The increase in the amplitude was not large, suggesting that the residual compressive strength increased substantially at 600 °C, and the variation decreased with aging and as the temperature increased.

3.7. Residual Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity at High Temperatures

As shown in Figure 11, Figure 12 and Figure 13, the SSRSC at a greater age showed a greater the ultrasonic pulse velocity transfer effect. At high temperatures and the age of 7 days, the ultrasonic pulse velocity of the control group was 3847 m/s−1486 m/s. The pulse velocity was measured at 200 °C when the substitution amount was 20%, but the probe was unable to receive the pulse velocity at 800 °C, potentially since the growth state of the concrete structure at the age of 7 days was incomplete and the internal structure could not endure the fire hazard at high temperatures. In this case, the concrete with a higher substitution amount was likely to form pores, and the concrete compactness decreased substantially such that the pulse velocity was unable to be transferred. However, the junction of the surface resistance probe and concrete was a waterlogged sponge, the water filled the pores, and the data were measured using the ohmic resistance test. The internal structure grew completely at the ages of 28 and 56 days, the pulse velocity was received normally, and the internal compactness increased with age.
The ultrasonic pulse velocities of the control group exposed to the high temperature of 200 °C at the ages of 7, 28, and 56 days were 3847 m/s, 4202 m/s, and 4217 m/s, respectively. The pulse velocities at 800 °C were 1486 m/s, 2743 m/s, and 2966 m/s, and the measured pulse velocity showed the highest transmission speed compared to the samples with different substitution amounts, suggesting that a higher substitution amount resulted in a slower pulse velocity transfer.
The compactness of the SSRSC decreased as the temperature increased, influencing the velocity of the normal transfer of ultrasonic pulses. The pulse velocity was 3212 m/s−4217 m/s when the temperature was 200 °C. The pulse velocity of the samples with a substitution amount of 20% at the age of 7 days at 600 °C could not be transferred normally, and the highest pulse velocity was 3711 m/s. The pulse velocity of the concrete with substitution amounts of 10–20% at the age of 7 days at 800 °C could not be measured, and the pulse velocities in the samples with substitution amounts of 0% and 5% at this age were lower than 2000 m/s, indicating that the higher temperatures resulted in a lower pulse velocity, and the pulse velocity failed to be transferred normally.

3.8. Residual Surface Resistance under High Temperature Effect

As shown in Figure 14, Figure 15 and Figure 16, the residual surface resistance of the concrete with various substitution amounts was much lower than 20 kΩ-cm. Upon exposure to different high temperatures at the age of 7 days, the residual surface resistance of the concrete with substitution amounts of 0% and 20% was reduced by 1, 1.4, and 0.91 kΩ-cm, respectively, and the surface resistance measured at the ages of 28 and 56 days increased as the substitution amount increased. Thus, the hydration of the SSRSC was greater at an early age, the porosity was higher, and the resistance was higher. The surface porosity increased with the substitution amount with aging, and the compactness increased with the residual resistance, suggesting that a larger substitution amount increased the internal porosity of the concrete with age and reduced its compactness.
The resistance was 13–16.2 kΩ-cm at the high temperature of 200 °C, the resistance at 600 °C was 6.93–13.3 kΩ-cm, and the resistance at 800 °C was 7.01–8.33 kΩ-cm. The highest resistance was achieved at 200 °C among the samples with various mixture proportions, the resistance was reduced by approximately one-half at 800 °C, and the interval was reduced considerably. Therefore, a higher temperature resulted in a lower internal compactness of the concrete and an increased surface porosity.

3.9. Resistance to Sulfate Attack

As shown in Figure 17, Figure 18 and Figure 19, the SSRSC accumulated weight in the earlier cycle with age, and the variation in weight decreased gradually. The weight losses of the concrete with different substitution amounts induced by the sulfate attack in the first cycle at the age of 7 days were 0.013% to 0.029%, indicating that the concrete spalled due to sulfate intrusion to induce weight loss. The weight losses of the concrete with substitution amounts of 0% to 10% at the age of 28 days were 0.013% to 0.026%, and the weight was increased by approximately 0.005% and 0.009% when the substitution amounts were 15% and 20%, respectively, suggesting that the weight accumulation began in the first cycle at this age. The losses of the SSRSC with the substitution amounts of 0% and 5% at the age of 56 days were 0.002% to 0.004%, respectively, and the weight of the concrete with substitution amounts of 10% to 20% was increased by 0.003% to 0.008%, respectively. The weight began to accumulate from the concrete with a lower substitution amount at this age, and the weight loss of the attacked concrete was substantially reduced. The variation in the weight of the control group at the age of 7 days after five cycles of soaking was 0.064%, the variation in the weight of the control group at the age of 28 days was 0.048%, and the variation in the weight of the control group at the age of 56 days was 0.039%. The variation in the weight of the concrete with a substitution amount of 20% at various ages ranged from 0.06% to 0.046%, suggesting that the SSRSC with different substitution amounts began to accumulate weight in an earlier soaking cycle with age and the amplitude of the variation in weight decreased gradually.
The higher the SSRS substitution amount, the lower the erosion rate and the higher the cumulative weight. The weight loss observed in the first cycle of the SSRSC control group at various ages was 0.029–0.004%, and the variation in the weight of the concrete with a substitution amount of 20% ranged from a loss of 0.013% to an increase of 0.008%, indicating that the weight loss of the attacked concrete decreased as the substitution amount and weight increased. The cumulative weight after the cyclic immersion of the concrete with a substitution amount of 10% at the age of 28 days was 0.028% and the cumulative weight of the concrete with a substitution amount of 20% was 0.038%, suggesting that the weight accumulation increased with the substitution amount. The weight was increased by 0.047% when the substitution amount was 20% at the age of 7 days, which was higher than the weight of the concrete with a substitution amount of 20% at the ages of 28 and 56 days, indicating a high porosity at an early age that allowed the sulfate solution to intrude and form crystals that lead to the maximum weight gain.

3.10. Autoclave Expansion

Figure 20 shows that the expansion of the control group of the SSRSC at the age of 7 days was 4.8 × 10−3%, and the expansion at the age of 28 days was 8 × 10−3%, indicating that the expansion of the concrete with a substitution amount of 0% increased slightly with age. The increasing amplitude of the concrete with substitution amounts of 5% to 15% was approximately 5.2 × 10−3%, revealing a slight change in the volume of the concrete at an early age. The expansion of the concrete with a substitution amount of 20% was 60.4 × 10−3%, which exceeded the specified value of 6 × 10−3%. Therefore, 20% was an inappropriate substitution amount. The expansion values of the concrete with substitution amounts of 5% and 10% at the age of 28 days were 48 × 10−3% and 52 × 10−3%, the same as the values measured at the age of 7 days. However, the variation was smaller. The expansion was 61.6 × 10−3% when the substitution amount was 15%, which exceeded the specified value and was also an inappropriate substitution amount. The degree of hydration of the concrete at the age of 56 days was almost complete, and the expansion of the control group was 9.2 × 10−3%, which was higher than the value measured at the age of 28 days by 1.2 × 10−3% and higher than the value measured at the age of 7 days by 4.4 × 10−3%, indicating a smaller variation in the expansion at a late age than at an early age.
The expansion of the concrete with a substitution amount of 0% was 4.8 × 10−3% to 9.2 × 10−3%, whereas the expansion of the concrete with a substitution amount of 5% was 34 × 10−3% to 50.8 × 10−3%, and the increasing amplitude represented a change in the length from five to nine times. The expansion of the concrete with a substitution amount of 20% was from 60.4 × 10−3% to 84.8 × 10−3%. The expansion was increased, but multiple variations were not observed compared to the concrete with a substitution amount of 5%, suggesting an obvious change in the volume when the cement was replaced with SSRS. Multiple increases in the expansion behavior were not observed as the substitution amount was increased continuously. The expansions of the concrete with a substitution amount of 10% at the ages of 28 days and 56 days were 52 × 10−3% and 59 × 10−3%, indicating that the substitution amount of 10% was the optimal substitution amount. The expansion response was lower than the value of 0.06% specified in CNS 13,619, suggesting that the substitution at an appropriate amount contributed to the recycling of SSRS.

4. Conclusions

This study used different SRSS substitution percentages of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% to replace cement. A set of cylindrical specimens was created, and its workability was explored using a fresh-mixed slump test. In addition, at the ages of 1, 3, 7, 28, and 56 days, the concrete hardened properties were discussed using compressive strength tests, UPV tests, and surface resistance tests. The sulfate attack test, thermal expansion test, and high-temperature fire damage test were conducted to measure the durability. Through the experiment of replacing cement with SRSS in concrete, the appropriate amount of the replacement material was identified to develop a method for removing waste steel slag so that the waste could be reused sustainably and the carbon dioxide emissions generated by the cement process could be reduced. The test results are as follows.
  • Replacing part of the cement with SSRS reduced the amount of cement. When the replacement percentage was 10%, the slump was 9.5 cm, which was lower than the upper limit of the slump design target value (10 cm). It exhibited a good lubricity and made the concrete workable.
  • The water–binder ratio (W/B) was 0.5, the amount of cement was approx. 360~400 kg/m3, and the upper limit of the slump was approx. 12.5 cm. When the percentage of the cement replaced by SRSS was 20%, the cement was reduced to 309 kg/m3, and the slump value was 11.5 cm (in line with the design goal). It was further verified that SRSS can provide lubrication for fresh concrete.
  • The compressive strength of the SSRSC specimen at 28 days was lower than that of the control group (without using SRSS in the concrete). When SRSS replaced part of the cement percentage by 10%, the compressive strength was 32.98 MPa. This was the best performance among the other specimen with SRSS, which was only 4.6% lower than that of the control group. Therefore, when the replacement amount of SRSS was 10%, although the compressive strength was slightly lower than that of the control group, it removed steelmaking waste slag and achieved sustainable reuse.
  • In terms of the performance of the UPVs of the SSRSC specimens, after three days of age, all the specimens reached 4000 m/s, which showed that the compactness of the specimens were good after adding SRSS. When the SRSS replaced part of the cement percentage by 20%, the UPV was 4361 m/s, slightly lower than the control group by 8%. However, the overall performance was compact. In addition, it was observed that the specimen adding SRSS exhibited lubricating properties during the fresh mixing process, which was also reflected in the compactness and hardening properties of the specimen.
  • The surface resistance of the SSRSC did not exceed 20 kΩ-cm at the age of 56 days, and the resistance decreased as the substitution amount increased, suggesting that the expansion effect after SSRS hydration reduced the concrete surface compactness. Such behavior may affect the durability of the concrete, so caution should be used regarding the usage amount.
  • In the high-temperature fire test, the SSRSC had no obvious effect on the concrete compressive strength and weight loss when the temperature was 200 °C. It even accelerated concrete hydration and catalyzed the rehydration of the unfinished hydration components. However, when the temperature was 600 °C and 800 °C, it was observed that the expansion and contraction of the internal aggregate and cement in the concrete were inconsistent and caused serious damage, resulting in more cracks. It was inferred that this was the main reason for the decrease in the compressive strength. Therefore, under the action of high temperature within 200 °C, the SSRSC specimen can still be used.
  • At the age of 56 days when the substitution amount was 10%, the expansion response of the SSRSC was lower than the value of 0.06% specified in CNS 13,619, indicating that a substitution with an appropriate amount of SSRS contributed to the recycling of SSRS.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.-T.L., Y.-T.H. and H.-Y.W.; methodology, H.-Y.W.; formal analysis, K.-T.L.; resources, T.-C.K.; data curation, Y.-T.H.; writing—original draft preparation, K.-T.L.; writing—review and editing, K.-T.L.; supervision, H.-Y.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data is unavailable due to privacy or ethical restrictions.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Shen, H.; Forssberg, E. An overview of recovery of metals from slags. Waste Manag. 2003, 23, 933–949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Shen, H.; Forssberg, E.; Nordström, U. Physicochemical and mineralogical properties of stainless steel slags oriented to metal recovery. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2004, 40, 245–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Ma, G.; Garbers-Craig, A.M. Cr (VI) containing electric furnace dusts and filter cake from a stainless steel waste treatment plant: Part 1-Characteristics and microstructure. Ironmak. Steelmak. 2006, 33, 229–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Durinck, D.; Engström, F.; Arnout, S.; Heulens, J.; Jones, P.T.; Björkman, B.; Blanpain, B.; Wollants, P. Hot stage processing of metallurgical slags. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2008, 52, 1121–1131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Zhang, B.; Wang, Z.; Yin, J.; Su, L. CO2 Emission Reduction within Chinese Iron & Steel Industry: Practices, determinants and performance. J. Clean. Prod. 2012, 33, 167–178. [Google Scholar]
  6. Saly, F.; Guo, L.; Ma, R.; Gu, C.; Sun, W. Properties of Steel Slag and Stainless Steel Slag as Cement Replacement Materials: A Comparative Study. J. Wuhan Univ. Technol. Mat. Sci. Ed. 2018, 33, 1444–1451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Huang, S.F. A Study of Fresh Properties and Strength of Stainless Steel Reducing Slag Cement Mortar. Master’s Thesis, Institute of Civil Engineering and Disaster Prevention Technology, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, 2018. (In Chinese). [Google Scholar]
  8. Singh, G.; Siddique, R. Effect of iron slag as partial replacement of fine aggregates on the durability characteristics of self-compacting concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2016, 128, 88–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. González-Ortega, M.A.; Cavalaro, S.H.P.; de Sensale, G.R.; Aguado, A. Durability of concrete with electric arc furnace slag aggregate. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 217, 543–556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Diao, J.; Zhou, W.; Ke, Z.; Qiao, Y.; Zhang, T.; Liu, X.; Xie, B. System assessment of recycling of steel slag in converter steelmaking. J. Clean. Prod. 2016, 125, 159–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Siddique, R.; Bennacer, R. Use of iron and steel industry by-product (GGBS) in cement paste and mortar. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2012, 69, 29–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Adesina, A. Recent advances in the concrete industry to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions. Environ. Chall. 2020, 1, 100004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Dzięcioł, J.; Radziemska, M. Blast Furnace Slag, Post-Industrial Waste or Valuable Building Materials with Remediation Potential? Minerals 2022, 12, 478. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Rosales, J.; Agrela, F.; Entrenas, J.A.; Cabrera, M. Potential of Stainless Steel Slag Waste in Manufacturing Self-Compacting Concrete. Materials 2020, 13, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Uygunoğlu, T.; Topçub, İ.B.; Çelikc, A.G. Use of waste marble and recycled aggregates in self-compacting concrete for environmental sustainability. J. Clean. Prod. 2014, 84, 691–700. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Valdez, P.; Barragán, B.; Girbes, I.; Shuttleworth, N.; Cockburn, A. Use of waste from the marble industry as filler for the production of self-compacting concretes. Mater. Constr. 2011, 61, 61–76. [Google Scholar]
  17. Corinaldesi, V.; Moriconi, G.; Naik, T.R. Characterization of marble powder for its use in mortar and concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2010, 24, 113–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Mendoza-Cuenca, J.L.; Mayorga, M.; Romero-Salazar, L.; Yee-Madeira, H.T.; Jiménez-Gallegos, J.; Arteaga-Arcos, J.C. Advances in the Use of the Steel Industry by-products when Manufacturing Traditional Ceramics for Sustainable Purposes. Procedia Eng. 2015, 118, 1202–1207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  19. Worldsteel Association. Available online: https://worldsteel.org/steel-topics/statistics/annual-production-steel-data/?ind=P1_crude_steel_total_pub/CHN/IND (accessed on 23 March 2023).
  20. Roslan, N.H.; Ismail, M.; Khalid, N.H.A.; Muhammad, B. Properties of concrete containing electric arc furnace steel slag and steel sludge. J. Build. Eng. 2020, 28, 101060. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Jiang, Y.; Ling, T.C.; Shi, C.; Pan, S.Y. Characteristics of steel slags and their use in cement and concrete—A review. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2018, 136, 187–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Skaf, M.; Manso, J.M.; Aragón, Á.; Fuente-Alonso, J.A.; Ortega-López, V. EAF slag in asphalt mixes: A brief review of its possible reuse. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2017, 120, 176–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Hassan, I.O.; Ismail, M.; Noruzman, A.H.; Yusufd, T.O.; Mehmannavaze, T.; Usman, J. Characterization of some key Industrial Waste products for sustainable Concrete production. Adv. Mater. Res. 2013, 690–693, 1091–1094. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Lin, B.C. A Study of Properties Reducing Furnace Slag Substitution for Cement. Master’s Thesis, Institute of Civil Engineering and Disaster Prevention, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, 2012. (In Chinese). [Google Scholar]
  25. Teo, P.T.; Zakaria, S.K.; Salleh, S.Z.; Taib, M.A.A.; Sharif, N.M.; Seman, A.A.; Mohamed, J.J.; Yusoff, M.; Yusoff, A.H.; Mohamad, M.; et al. Assessment of electric arc furnace (EAF) steel slag waste’s recycling options into value added green products: A review. Metals 2020, 10, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Wu, Y.T. Predicting Models of Engineering Properties of Self-Compacting Concrete with Stainless Steel Reduced Slag. Ph.D. Thesis, National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  27. Land, D.S.G. The effect of synthesis conditions on the efficiency of C-S-H seeds to accelerate cement hydration. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2018, 87, 73–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Yuanyuan, Z.; Qinzhou, W. Proportion Design of Concrete Added with Hearthstone Powder and Fly Ash and Analysis of Cement Strength Benefit. J. Archit. 2014, 89, 19–33. [Google Scholar]
  29. Chen, Y.W. Study on Engineering Properties of Cement (Sand) Slurry Made from Hearthstone Powder and Stainless Steel Reduction Ballast Instead of Cement. Master’s Thesis, Institute of Civil Engineering and Technology, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  30. Zhang, H.X.; Wei, H.A. An overview for the utilization of wastes from stainless steel industries. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2011, 55, 745–754. [Google Scholar]
  31. Baizhang, L. Study on the Properties of Reduced Furnace Slag Replacing Cement. Master’s Thesis, Institute of Civil Engineering and Disaster Prevention National Taipei University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, 2012. [Google Scholar]
  32. Chen, Y.Y.; Chen, C.T.; Wang, H.Y. Study on the influence of the average lubricant quantity of aggregates on the concrete engineering properties. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 217, 321–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Wang, H.Y.; Tsai, S.L.; Hung, C.C.; Jian, T.Y. Research on engineering properties of cement mortar adding stainless steel reduction slag and pozzolanic materials. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2022, 16, e01144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Subathra Devi, V.; Madhan Kumar, M.; Iswarya, N.; Gnanavel, B.K. Durability of Steel Slag Concrete under Various Exposure Conditions. Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 22, 2764–2771. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Papachristoforou, M.; Anastasiou, E.K.; Papayianni, I. Durability of steel fiber reinforced concrete with coarse steel slag aggregates including performance at elevated temperatures. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 262, 120569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Sheen, Y.N.; Wang, H.Y.; Sun, T.H. A study of engineering properties of cement mortar with stainless steel oxidizing slag and reducing slag resource materials. Constr. Build. Mater. 2013, 40, 239–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Liao, Y.J. Engineering Properties of Ready-Mixed Soil Materials Using Stainless Steel Reducing Slag. Master’s Thesis, Institute of Civil Engineering and Disaster Prevention, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, 2013. (In Chinese). [Google Scholar]
  38. Cao, Z.H. Stainless Steel Ballast Reduction of the Environmental Behavior of the Expansion Was Made of Cement Mortar. Master’s Thesis, Institute of Civil Engineering and Disaster Prevention, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, 2013. (In Chinese). [Google Scholar]
  39. Sun, T.H. Studies on the Stabilization of Stainless Steel Slags and its Application in Self-Compacting Concrete. Ph.D. Thesis, Institute of Civil Engineering and Disaster Prevention, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, 2015. (In Chinese). [Google Scholar]
  40. Zago, S.C.; Vernilli, F.; Cascudo, O. The Reuse of Basic Oxygen Furnace Slag as Concrete Aggregate to Achieve Sustainable Development: Characteristics and Limitations. Buildings 2023, 13, 1193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. ASTM C143:2020; Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete. American Society of Testing and Materials: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2020.
  42. ASTM C39/C39M-20; Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2020.
  43. ASTM C597-16; Standard Test Method for Pulse Velocity Through Concrete. American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM): West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2016.
  44. ASTM C876-15; Standard Test Method for Corrosion Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in Concrete. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2016.
  45. AASHTO T 277; Standard Method of Test for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration. American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO): Washington, DC, USA, 2019.
  46. ASTM C1202-12:2012; Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2012.
  47. ASTM C 1012/C 1012M-18b; Standard Test Method for Length Change of Hydraulic-Cement Mortars Exposed to a Sulfate Solution. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2018.
  48. ASTM C151; Standard Test Method for Autoclave Expansion of Hydraulic Cement. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2015.
  49. Sheen, Y.N.; Le, D.H.; Sun, T.H. Greener self-compacting concrete using stainless steel reducing slag. Constr. Build. Mater. 2015, 82, 341–350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Sheen, Y.N.; Huang, L.J.; Sun, T.H.; Le, D.H. Engineering Properties of Self-compacting Concrete Containing Stainless Steel Slags. Procedia Eng. 2016, 142, 79–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  51. ACI (American Concrete Institute). ACI 318-2014: Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-14) and Commentary (ACI 318R-14); American Concrete Institute: Farmington Hills, MI, USA, 2014; p. 519. [Google Scholar]
Sustainability 15 09951 g001 550
Figure 1. Slump of the SSRS concrete with different replacement amounts.
Figure 1. Slump of the SSRS concrete with different replacement amounts.
Sustainability 15 09951 g001
Sustainability 15 09951 g002 550
Figure 2. Compressive strength of the SSRSC with different replacement amounts at various ages.
Figure 2. Compressive strength of the SSRSC with different replacement amounts at various ages.
Sustainability 15 09951 g002
Sustainability 15 09951 g003 550
Figure 3. UPV of the SSRSC.
Figure 3. UPV of the SSRSC.
Sustainability 15 09951 g003
Sustainability 15 09951 g004 550
Figure 4. Surface resistance of the SSRSC.
Figure 4. Surface resistance of the SSRSC.
Sustainability 15 09951 g004
Sustainability 15 09951 g005 550
Figure 5. Weight loss rate of the SSRSC with 7 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Figure 5. Weight loss rate of the SSRSC with 7 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Sustainability 15 09951 g005
Sustainability 15 09951 g006 550
Figure 6. Weight loss rate of the SSRSC with 28 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C and 800 °C.
Figure 6. Weight loss rate of the SSRSC with 28 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C and 800 °C.
Sustainability 15 09951 g006
Sustainability 15 09951 g007 550
Figure 7. Weight loss rate of the SSRSC with 56 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Figure 7. Weight loss rate of the SSRSC with 56 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Sustainability 15 09951 g007
Sustainability 15 09951 g008 550
Figure 8. Residual compressive strength of the SSRSC at 7 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Figure 8. Residual compressive strength of the SSRSC at 7 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Sustainability 15 09951 g008
Sustainability 15 09951 g009 550
Figure 9. Residual compressive strength of the SSRSC at 28 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Figure 9. Residual compressive strength of the SSRSC at 28 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Sustainability 15 09951 g009
Sustainability 15 09951 g010 550
Figure 10. Residual compressive strength of the SSRSC at 56 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Figure 10. Residual compressive strength of the SSRSC at 56 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Sustainability 15 09951 g010
Sustainability 15 09951 g011 550
Figure 11. Residual UPV of the SSRSC at 7 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Figure 11. Residual UPV of the SSRSC at 7 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Sustainability 15 09951 g011
Sustainability 15 09951 g012 550
Figure 12. Residual UPV of the SSRSC at 28 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Figure 12. Residual UPV of the SSRSC at 28 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Sustainability 15 09951 g012
Sustainability 15 09951 g013 550
Figure 13. Residual UPV of the SSRSC at 56 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Figure 13. Residual UPV of the SSRSC at 56 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Sustainability 15 09951 g013
Sustainability 15 09951 g014 550
Figure 14. Residual surface resistance of the SSRSC at 7 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Figure 14. Residual surface resistance of the SSRSC at 7 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Sustainability 15 09951 g014
Sustainability 15 09951 g015 550
Figure 15. Residual surface resistance of the SSRSC at 28 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Figure 15. Residual surface resistance of the SSRSC at 28 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Sustainability 15 09951 g015
Sustainability 15 09951 g016 550
Figure 16. Residual surface resistance of the SSRSC at 56 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Figure 16. Residual surface resistance of the SSRSC at 56 days of high temperature at 200 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C.
Sustainability 15 09951 g016
Sustainability 15 09951 g017 550
Figure 17. Weight influences of the SSRSC at 7 days with sulfate attack after one to five cycles of soaking.
Figure 17. Weight influences of the SSRSC at 7 days with sulfate attack after one to five cycles of soaking.
Sustainability 15 09951 g017
Sustainability 15 09951 g018 550
Figure 18. Weight influences of the SSRSC at 28 days with sulfate attack after one to five cycles of soaking.
Figure 18. Weight influences of the SSRSC at 28 days with sulfate attack after one to five cycles of soaking.
Sustainability 15 09951 g018
Sustainability 15 09951 g019 550
Figure 19. Weight Influences of the SSRSC at 56 days with sulfate attack after one to five cycles of soaking.
Figure 19. Weight Influences of the SSRSC at 56 days with sulfate attack after one to five cycles of soaking.
Sustainability 15 09951 g019
Sustainability 15 09951 g020 550
Figure 20. Expansion influences of the SSRSC at 7, 28, and 56 days.
Figure 20. Expansion influences of the SSRSC at 7, 28, and 56 days.
Sustainability 15 09951 g020
Table
Table 1. Chemical and physical properties of the SSRS and cement.
Table 1. Chemical and physical properties of the SSRS and cement.
Chemical Composition (%)
CaOSiO2Al2O3MgOFe2O3Cr2O3
48.623.74.22–51.210.01
Physical properties
PropertiesSSRSCement
Bulk specific gravity (BSG)3.113.15
Density (kg/m3)31103150
Fineness (cm2/g)30003310
Table
Table 2. Properties of concrete aggregates.
Table 2. Properties of concrete aggregates.
ItemFine AggregatesCoarse Aggregates
Material
Bulk specific gravity (BSG)2.662.47
Bulk density (kg/m3)26602466
Dry-rodded weight (kg/m3)-1512
Fineness modulus (FM)3.09-
Absorption1.71.6
Table
Table 3. The proportion of the SSRS concrete.
Table 3. The proportion of the SSRS concrete.
ReplacementSSRS (%)
Material 05101520
W/B0.50.50.50.50.5
Water (kg/m3)193193193193193
Cement (kg/m3)386367347328309
SSRS (kg/m3)019395877
Fine aggregates (kg/m3)983983983983983
Coarse aggregates (kg/m3)716716716716716
Table
Table 4. Surface resistance of the SSRS concrete. (kΩ-cm).
Table 4. Surface resistance of the SSRS concrete. (kΩ-cm).
Days1372856
Replacement
07.458.679.209.8710.73
57.458.428.709.4710.00
107.408.028.319.209.53
157.277.638.079.159.45
207.107.509.089.089.33
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Lin, K.-T.; Wang, H.-Y.; Hsieh, Y.-T.; Kao, T.-C. Effect of High Temperature on the Expansion and Durability of SSRSC. Sustainability 2023, 15, 9951. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15139951

AMA Style

Lin K-T, Wang H-Y, Hsieh Y-T, Kao T-C. Effect of High Temperature on the Expansion and Durability of SSRSC. Sustainability. 2023; 15(13):9951. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15139951

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lin, Keng-Ta, Her-Yung Wang, Yi-Ta Hsieh, and Tien-Chun Kao. 2023. "Effect of High Temperature on the Expansion and Durability of SSRSC" Sustainability 15, no. 13: 9951. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15139951

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop