Analysis of the Life Cycle and Properties of Concrete with the Addition of Waste Car Glass
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Description of the Test Method
- Portland cement, CEM I 52.5 R—SR5,
- Natural fine aggregate—sand with fraction 0–2—(K1),
- Coarse natural aggregate—basalt fraction 2–8—(K2),
- tap water,
- fluidizing admixture.
- 27 cubes with dimensions of 150 × 150 × 150 mm—six reference samples and seven samples for each modification,
- 12 cylinders with a diameter of 150 mm and a height of 300 mm—three reference samples and three samples for each modification,
- 12 pieces of beams with dimensions of 100 × 100 × 500 mm—three pieces of reference samples and three pieces of samples for each modification.
- Thermal conductivity—λ
- Thermal capacity—Cp
- Thermal diffusivity—a
- XF3—freeze/thaw attack,
- XM2—mechanical attack,
- XA2—chemical attack,
- XD2—corrosion induced by chlorides,
- XC3—corrosion induced by carbonation,
- Compressive strength: 70.13 MPa
- Flexural strength: 5.70 MPa
- Splitting tensile strength—cubic specimens: 2.82 MPa
- Splitting tensile strength—cylindrical specimens: 3.08 MPa
- Dynamic Young’s modulus: 46.9 GPa
- Static Young’s modulus: 40.4 GPa
- Thermal properties:
- Design point load—wheels—40 kN,
- Design point load—shelves—25 kN,
- 1.
- Inventory analysis—production phase
- 2.
- Inventory analysis—construction phase
- 3.
- Inventory analysis—exploitation phase
- 4.
- Inventory analysis—end-of-life phase
- Sand: approximately 72%
- Soda: approximately 13%
- Limestone: approximately 8%
- Dolomite: approximately 4%
- Alumina: approximately 1%
- Temperature variables (from −70 °C to 150 °C),
- Moisture,
- Emphasis,
- Action of bases, acids and salts,
- UV radiation,
- dirt,
- Abrasion.
- Facilitating the distribution and compaction of the concrete mix,
- Improving water and frost resistance,
- Improvement of the early and final strength of concrete.
3. Results
4. Research Significance
5. Conclusions
6. Discussion
- Ali İhsan Çelik, et al. [104]; Mechanical Behavior of Crushed Waste Glass as Replacement of Aggregates.
- 2.
- Ibrahim Almeshal, et al. [15]; Mechanical properties of eco-friendly cements-based glass powder in aggressive medium.
- 3.
- Shaker Qaidi, et al. [14]; Concrete Containing Waste Glass as an Environmentally Friendly Aggregate: A Review on Fresh and Mechanical Characteristics
- 4.
- Ali İhsan Çelik, et al. [105]; Use of waste glass powder toward more sustainable geopolymer concrete
- 5.
- Zeybek Ö., et al. [106]; Influence of Replacing Cement with Waste Glass on Mechanical Properties of Concrete
7. Recommendations
- More investigation is required into the mechanical characteristics of high-performance and high-strength waste-glass concrete.
- The effects of different types and sizes of glass particles on concrete mixes should be thoroughly researched in the future.
- Test fewer common types of glass as aggregates in concrete because the vast majority of research only covers soda-lime, borosilicate or lead glass.
- Conduct a comprehensive evaluation of the real environmental effects through a thorough and detailed life-cycle assessment to evaluate the feasibility of using this waste.
8. Further Research
- confirmation of the origin of the glass, as its chemical composition may significantly change the physicochemical properties of the finished composites.
- considering adding more glass in favor of a weaker type of cement, e.g., metallurgical, to reduce the CO2 footprint.
- the possibility of using glass aggregate as a substitute for all natural aggregate used in the production of concrete composite.
- the possibility of using chemical additives to modify the physical properties of composites, e.g., increasing the strength between cement and glass aggregate or accelerating or slowing down the hydration reaction.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Concrete Mix Recipe per m3 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Aggregate (K1 + K2) | K = 1000/[(Wk/(1 – Wc × ω)) × (ω/ρc + 1) + (1/ρk)] = | 2048 | [kg/m3] | |
Water | W = [Wk/(1 − Wc × ω)] × K = | 176 | [kg/m3] | |
Cement | C = W × ω = | 367 | [kg/m3] | |
Fine aggregate (K1)— Sand 0–2 | K1 = K × (K1/K) = | 599 | [kg/m3] | |
Coarse aggregate (K2)—Basalt 2–8 | K2 = K × (K2/K) = | 1449 | [kg/m3] | |
Bulk density of concrete mix—ρ | ρ = C + K1 + K2 + W = | 2591 | [kg/m3] |
Production phase | A1 | Extraction and production of raw materials |
A2 | Transport | |
A3 | Production of construction materials | |
Construction phase | A4 | Transport |
A5 | Construction | |
Use phase | B1 | Use |
B2 | Maintenance | |
B3 | Repair | |
B4 | Replacement | |
B5 | Refurbishment | |
B6 | Energy consuption | |
B7 | Water consuption | |
End-of-life phase | C1 | Demolition |
C2 | Transport | |
C3 | Waste processing | |
C4 | Disposal |
Design Point Load—Wheels [kN] | Design Point Load—Shelves [kN] | Concrete Class | Water/Cement Ratio | Concrete Slab Thickness [cm] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Daily Intensity | ||||||
n ≤ 10 | n ≤ 50 | n ≤ 100 | ||||
10 | 15 | C25/30 | ≤0.55 | ≥16 | ≥16 | ≥18 |
20 | ≥16 | ≥18 | ≥20 | |||
30 | 25 | C30/37 | ≤0.50 | ≥16 | ≥18 | ≥20 |
40 | ≥18 | ≥20 | ≥22 | |||
60 | 35 | ≤0.45 | ≥20 | ≥22 | ≥24 | |
80 | ≥22 | ≥24 | ≥26 | |||
100 | 50 | C35/45 | ≥24 | ≥26 | ≥28 | |
120 | ≥26 | ≥28 | ≥30 | |||
140 | ≤0.42 | ≥28 | ≥30 | ≥32 |
Component | Amount | Unit |
---|---|---|
Cement CEM I 52.5 R | 36,700 | kg |
Fine aggregate—sand 0–2 | 59,900 | kg |
Coarse aggregate—basalt 2–8 | 144,900 | kg |
Water | 17,600 | kg |
Car glass | 11,111 | kg |
Parametr | Amount | Unit |
---|---|---|
Emissions to the environment | ||
Global warming potential—CO2—eqv | 33,509 | kg |
Depletion of natural resources | ||
Fine aggregate—sand 0–2 | 64,692 | kg |
Coarse aggregate—basalt 2–8 | 156,492 | kg |
Water | 19,008 | kg |
Limestone and aluminosilicates | 38,448 | kg |
Gypsum | 1188 | kg |
Depletion of energy sources | ||
Fuel—Diesel | 2356 | L |
Electricity—coal | 587 | kg |
Thermal energy—coal | 3425 | kg |
Thermal energy—RDF alternative fuel | 3171 | kg |
Essential Characteristics | Usable Properties | Unit |
---|---|---|
Compressive strength | ||
1 day | 21–27 | MPa |
2 days | 40–48 | MPa |
7 days | 53–65 | MPa |
28 days | 66–76 | MPa |
Initial setting time | 110–160 | min |
Standard consistency | 30 | |
Constant capacity | 0.5 | mm |
Cement fineness (wg Blaine’a) | 400 | m2/kg |
Specific mass (absolute density) | 3090–3190 | kg/m3 |
Bulk-specific weight | 1080 | kg/m3 |
Heat of hydration | 550 | kJ/kg |
Chemical properties of clinker | ||
C3S | 73 | % |
C2S | 16 | % |
C3A | 5 | % |
C4AF | 1 | % |
Chemical properties of cement | ||
SO3 | 1.8–2.3 | % |
MgO | 0.6 | % |
Na2O | ≤0.3 | % |
Chloride | ≤0.04 | % |
roasting loss | 1 | % |
Insoluble residue | 0.1 | % |
Water-soluble Cr + 6 | ≤2 | mg/kg |
Class | Cone Drop [mm] | Tolerance [mm] |
---|---|---|
S1 | 10–40 | ±10 |
S2 | 50–90 | ±20 |
S3 | 100–150 | ±30 |
S4 | 160–210 | ±30 |
S5 | ≥220 | ±30 |
Variants | Cone Drop [mm] | Consistency Class |
---|---|---|
Reference | 30 | S1 |
Variant 1 | 37 | S1 |
Variant 2 | 7 | S1 |
Variant 3 | 5 | S1 |
Reference | W1 | W2 | W3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Density [kg/m3] | 2591 | 2658 | 2702 | 2747 |
Consistence class | S1 | S1 | S1 | S1 |
Air content [%] | 5.0 | 5.1 | 5.0 | 5.2 |
Volume Densities of Cubic Samples [kg/m3] | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Reference | W1 | W2 | W3 | |
1 | 2483.7 | 2516.7 | 2548.1 | 2448.4 |
2 | 2548.0 | 2472.4 | 2504.3 | 2454.7 |
3 | 2518.1 | 2507.3 | 2463.6 | 2494.1 |
4 | 2503.3 | 2530.1 | 2459.7 | 2484.4 |
5 | 2498.7 | 2488.0 | 2476.1 | 2452.9 |
6 | 2529.8 | 2508.7 | 2421.3 | 2456.1 |
7 | - | 2425.9 | 2472.9 | 2496.4 |
Average value | 2513.6 | 2492.7 | 2478.0 | 2469.6 |
Variant | Destructive Force F [kN] | Compressive Strength [MPa] | Average Compressive Strength [MPa] | Standard Deviation | Confidence Interval [MPa] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reference | 1533.6 | 68.2 | 70.30 | 1.836 | 64.71–75.89 |
1612.1 | 71.6 | ||||
1600.7 | 71.1 | ||||
W1 | 1547.7 | 68.8 | 68.18 | 1.992 | 64.51–71.84 |
1591.7 | 70.7 | ||||
1505.1 | 66.9 | ||||
1492.2 | 66.3 | ||||
W2 | 1560.2 | 69.3 | 70.13 | 1.905 | 66.62–73.63 |
1639.4 | 72.9 | ||||
1542.5 | 68.6 | ||||
1567.3 | 69.7 | ||||
W3 | 1513 | 67.2 | 68.60 | 1.643 | 65.58–71.62 |
1549.7 | 68.9 | ||||
1518.4 | 67.5 | ||||
1592.1 | 70.8 |
Variant | Destructive Force F [kN] | Flexural Tensile Strength [MPa] | Average Flexural Tensile Strength [MPa] | Standard Deviation | Confidence Interval [MPa] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reference | 10.38 | 6.2 | 5.70 | 0.458 | 4.31–7.09 |
8.75 | 5.3 | ||||
9.32 | 5.6 | ||||
W1 | 8.68 | 5.2 | 5.63 | 0.451 | 4.26–7.01 |
9.38 | 5.6 | ||||
10.22 | 6.1 | ||||
W2 | 9.31 | 5.6 | 5.70 | 0.557 | 4.01–7.39 |
8.67 | 5.2 | ||||
10.28 | 6.3 | ||||
W3 | 8.89 | 5.3 | 5.27 | 0.058 | 5.09–5.44 |
8.75 | 5.3 | ||||
8.65 | 5.2 |
Variant | Destructive Force F [kN] | Tensile Strength When Splitting [MPa] | Average Tensile Strength When Splitting [MPa] | Standard Deviation | Confidence Interval [MPa] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reference | 269.2 | 3.8 | 3.53 | 0.275 | 2.70–4.37 |
238.4 | 3.25 | ||||
254.2 | 3.55 | ||||
W1 | 221.1 | 3.15 | 3.43 | 0.275 | 2.60–4.27 |
243.0 | 3.45 | ||||
262.4 | 3.7 | ||||
W2 | 218.2 | 3.1 | 3.08 | 0.625 | 1.18–4.99 |
260.0 | 3.7 | ||||
171.9 | 2.45 | ||||
W3 | 232.5 | 3.3 | 3.20 | 0.100 | 2.90–3.50 |
212.8 | 3.1 | ||||
226.3 | 3.2 |
Variant | Modulus of Elasticity [GPa] | The Average Value of the Modulus of Elasticity [GPa] | Standard Deviation |
---|---|---|---|
Reference | 46.7 | 47.6 | 0.902 |
48.5 | |||
47.7 | |||
W1 | 46.9 | 46.8 | 0.058 |
46.8 | |||
46.8 | |||
W2 | 46.9 | 46.9 | 0.551 |
46.4 | |||
47.5 | |||
W3 | 46.5 | 46.4 | 0.153 |
46.2 | |||
46.4 |
Variant | Modulus of Elasticity [GPa] | The Average Value of the Modulus of Elasticity [GPa] | Standard Deviation |
---|---|---|---|
Referencja | 40.1 | 41.2 | 1.102 |
42.3 | |||
41.3 | |||
W1 | 40.4 | 40.3 | 0.100 |
40.3 | |||
40.2 | |||
W2 | 40.3 | 40.4 | 0.702 |
39.7 | |||
41.1 | |||
W3 | 39.8 | 39.7 | 0.100 |
39.6 | |||
39.7 |
Reference | W1 | W2 | W3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mass [g] | 8483.3 | 8413.0 | 8363.3 | 8334.9 |
Bulk density [kg/m3] | 2513.6 | 2492.7 | 2478.0 | 2469.6 |
Compressive strength [MPa] | 70.30 | 68.18 | 70.13 | 68.60 |
Flexural strength [MPa] | 5.70 | 5.63 | 5.70 | 5.27 |
Splitting tensile strength— cubic specimens [MPa] | 3.07 | 3.03 | 2.82 | 2.98 |
Splitting tensile strength— cylindrical specimens [MPa] | 3.53 | 3.43 | 3.08 | 3.20 |
Dynamic Young’s modulus [GPa] | 47.6 | 46.8 | 46.9 | 46.4 |
Static Young’s modulus [GPa] | 41.2 | 40.3 | 40.4 | 39.7 |
No | Variant | The Value of the Thermal Conductivity Coefficient—λ | Unit |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Reference | 1.8837 | [W/m·K] |
2 | W1 | 1.9086 | |
3 | W2 | 1.8496 | |
4 | W3 | 1.7336 |
No | Variant | The Value of the Thermal Conductivity Coefficient—λ | Unit |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Reference | 1.9184 | [W/m·K] |
2 | W1 | 1.9202 | |
3 | W2 | 1.9025 | |
4 | W3 | 1.8699 |
No | Variant | The Right Warmth—cp | Size Multiplier | Unit |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Reference | 1.7646 | ×106 | [J/m3·K] |
2 | W1 | 1.7049 | ||
3 | W2 | 1.7483 | ||
4 | W3 | 1.8276 |
No | Variant | The Right Warmth—cp | Size Multiplier | Unit |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Reference | 1.5591 | ×106 | [J/m3·K] |
2 | W1 | 1.5911 | ||
3 | W2 | 1.7329 | ||
4 | W3 | 1.7673 |
No | Variant | Thermal Diffusivity—a | Size Multiplier | Unit |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Reference | 1.0675 | ×10−6 | [m2/s] |
2 | W1 | 1.1195 | ||
3 | W2 | 1.0579 | ||
4 | W3 | 0.9486 |
No | Variant | Thermal Diffusivity—a | Size Multiplier | Unit |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Reference | 1.2305 | ×10−6 | [m2/s] |
2 | W1 | 1.2068 | ||
3 | W2 | 1.0979 | ||
4 | W3 | 1.0581 |
Reference | W1 | W2 | W3 | |
Bulk density [kg/m3] | 2513.6 | 2492.7 | 2478.0 | 2469.6 |
Reference | W1 | W2 | W3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Compressive strength [MPa] | 70.30 | 68.18 | 70.13 | 68.60 |
Reference | W1 | W2 | W3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Splitting tensile strength— cubic specimens [MPa] | 3.07 | 3.03 | 2.82 | 2.98 |
Splitting tensile strength— cylindrical specimens [MPa] | 3.53 | 3.43 | 3.08 | 3.20 |
Reference | W1 | W2 | W3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Flexural strength [MPa] | 5.70 | 5.63 | 5.70 | 5.27 |
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Starczyk-Kołbyk, A.; Małek, M. Analysis of the Life Cycle and Properties of Concrete with the Addition of Waste Car Glass. Sustainability 2023, 15, 10836. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410836
Starczyk-Kołbyk A, Małek M. Analysis of the Life Cycle and Properties of Concrete with the Addition of Waste Car Glass. Sustainability. 2023; 15(14):10836. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410836
Chicago/Turabian StyleStarczyk-Kołbyk, Anna, and Marcin Małek. 2023. "Analysis of the Life Cycle and Properties of Concrete with the Addition of Waste Car Glass" Sustainability 15, no. 14: 10836. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410836